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AN ELEMENTAHY 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 



By r/G? LATHAM, M. D., F. R. S., 

LATE FELLOW OF KING's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 



REVISED EDITION. 




CAMBRIDGE: 

PUBLISHED BY JOHN BARTLETT, 

3Soolts0Uer to t|)e ^inibersits* 

1852. 

J 



A^^'^^ fp till 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851. by 

John Bartlett, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts, 



CABI BRIDGE: 

STEREOTYPED AND PRINTED BY 

M E T C A L F AND COMPANY, 

PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 



Page 69, § 12-t. Other words, which form their plural like loaf, are knife, 
sheaf, staff, thief; also, elf, self, shelf, wolf, which are exceptions to the rule 
on p. 70, since their voivel is short. Wharf, like dwarf, retains the sharp f ; 
hut in the United States the common plural of this word is wharves, formed ac- 
cording to the analogy of loaf. Belief and reef, and perhaps strife and waif, 
are also properly exceptions to the rule on p. 70. 

Page 170. Omit § 355. 4. As itself occurs in the English Bible, and its 
does noty there can be no doubt that the ivord is compounded of it and self. 
(N. A. Review, No. CLIII. p. 325.) 



ADVERTISEMENT 

TO THE REVISED EDITION. 



This book is in the main a reprint of the English edition 
of Latham's Grammar, with some additions and corrections 
from other works by the same author. The Historical Intro- 
duction has been enlarged by the insertion of several pages 
from Latham's '' History and Etymology of the English Lan- 
guage for Classical Schools," and the book has been made 
to conform throughout to the author's latest views as given in 
the third edition of his large work on the English Language. 
As the sheets have passed through the press some verbal 
errors have been silently corrected, but only in a single in- 
stance has any change requiring notice been made in the body 
of the work ; namely, in the lists of the Strong Verbs. 

There are some views and statements in this Grammar, 
particularly in the vocal system, which are open to objection. 
But as this book professes to be substantially a reprint, rad- 
ical changes in the original were of course inadmissible. It 
should be observed, moreover, that, where Latham fails to 
give satisfaction, no other grammarian has succeeded on the 
whole better than he. 

The Conjugation of the Verb is one of the most difficult 
points in English Etymology. In this book a positive inflec- 
tional form is virtually taken for the ground of distinction in 
voices and tenses. If this principle were consistently carried 
out with the moods, we should have two moods in the sub- 
stantive verb and one in all others. The author has, how- 



IV ADVERTISEMENT. 

ever, thought it advisable in this elementary work to admit 
the four usual moods, and has based them upon definitions. 

It has been forcibly urged by several w^riters,* that although 
the English verb is to a great degree destitute of inflections, 
yet the combination of the simple form of the verb with cer- 
tain other verbs, which abandon their proper meaning to serve 
in the capacity of auxiliaries, affords as just a ground for the 
distinctions of voice, mood, and tense as positive inflections can 
do. This function of the auxiliary verbs, so far as it is ex- 
hibited at all in the present work, is explained in the Syntax. 

The idea is certainly philosophical, and it is to be hoped 
that the theory of the English Conjugation will be completed 
upon this principle, and be put into a fit shape for elementary 
works. Until this shall be done, it is best, perhaps, that con- 
jugation should be based upon positive inflections. 

Dr. Latham's works have been fully appreciated in Eng- 
land, but they have not yet made their way into the schools 
^of America. What distinguishes this Grammar from others 
— besides its brevity, simplicity, and clearness — is, that it 
proceeds throughout on the basis of history and comparative 
philology. The author having explained his views of the 
study of grammar in general, and of the proper method of 
studying this book in particular, much need not be added on 
that head. The book is not adapted for the lower classes of 
our grammar schools, but is perfectly level to the comprehen- 
sion of the higher classes. The occasional apparition of a 
Saxon word, or of an illustration from some other language, 
is a bugbear that will soon cease to alarm children of ordinary 
intelligence. Certain sections (particularly of Part II.) may 
very well be omitted on a first study, or altogether, according 

to circumstances. 

E. J. C. 
Harvard College, Dec. 15, 1851. 

* See Mr. Smart's "Principles of English Grammar," a work 
abounding in valuable remarks, and, above all, an excellent arti- 
cle in the Korth American Review, No CLIII. 



PREFACE 

TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



A PASSAGE from the Preface to Professor De Morgan's 
" Elements of Arithmetic " so completely represents my own 
views upon the character of the following work, that, in- 
stead of making any original remark of my own, I transfer 
it. It is only necessary to substitute the word Grammar for 
Arithmetic, and the application of the extract becomes exact. 

'' Since the publication of the first edition of this work, 
though its sale has sufficiently convinced me that there ex- 
ists a disposition to introduce the principles of Arithmetic 
into schools, as well as the practice, I have often heard it 
remarked that it was a hard book for children. I never dared 
to suppose it would be otherwise. All who have been en- 
gaged in the education of youth are aware that it is a hard 
thing to make them think ; so hard, indeed, that masters had, 
till within the last few years, almost universally abandoned 
the attempt, and taught them rules instead of principles, — 
by authority instead of demonstration. This system is now 
passing away, and many preceptors may be found who are 
of opinion that, whatever may be the additional trouble to 
themselves, their pupils should always be induced to reflect 
upon, and know the reason for, what they are doing. Such 
I would advise not to be discouraged by the failure of a first 
attempt to make the learner understand the principle of a 



VI PREFACE. 

rule. It is no exaggeration to say, that, under the present 
system, five years of a boy's life are partially spent in merely 
learning the rules contained in this treatise, and those for 
the most part in so imperfect a way, that he is not fit to en- 
counter any question unless he sees the head of the book 
under which it falls. On a very moderate computation of the 
time thus bestowed, the pupil would be in no respect worse 
off, though he spent five hours on every page of this work." 

Now I am not only prepared to admit, that what is learned 
from the following pages will probably be learned slowly, 
but I recommend that it sho-uld be so learned. On the other 
hand, however, I insist upon the certainty that, when the 
book has once been mastered, the student will have been 
brought sufficiently far in Philology to find all that comes 
afterwards easy beyond expectation. He will have as much 
Logic as explains the structure of propositions, and that is 
nearly as much as is wanted at all for philological purposes, 
and a great deal more than is at present known generally. 
He will also have the elements of Philological Classifica- 
tion ; inasmuch as, having learned from practice the value 
of such a division in language as the one which comprises 
the English, Dutch, German, and Scandinavian languages, 
he will find no trouble in understanding the higher groups, 
called Indo-European, Semitic, &c. Lastly, he will have 
compared the inflected character of the Anglo-Saxon stage 
of our own language with the uninflected structure of the 
present English, and have done something in observing the 
transition from the one state to the other. This prepares 
him for an historical view of language in its broadest form. 
What he has learned with difficulty concerning the relations 
between the English and Anglo-Saxon, he will perceive at 
once in a comparison between either the Latin and Italian, 
or between any other ancient tongue and its modern deriv- 
ative. Hence, those who mean to go further into the studies 
of Grammar and Etymology are prepared for their researches 



PREFACE. VU 

by a preliminary discipline ; and it is believed that this dis- 
cipline is sufficient to carry them to some distance beyond the 
threshold of even the highest works on those subjects. Such, 
at least, is the aim of the present writer, who has enlarged 
upon these points, solely for the sake of showing that slow 
steps in the beginning may lead to a rapid progress in the 
conclusion of a study. 

With those, however, who are satisfied with simply learn- 
ing what is called the grammar of their mother-tongue, and 
who merely require the rules for speaking English correctly, 
the previous statements are insufficient. Such readers are 
neither learning special Grammar nor Philology in general. 
They are simply studying English ; and they wish to study 
it as quickly and as easily as possible. To them I would 
submit, that, under the usual-course of English, they learn 
either too much or too little. If they merely mean to speak 
and write with average correctness, they can get what they 
want without any grammar at all ; viz. by attending to the 
language of the best sort of their acquaintance, and by ap- 
plying to some good authority in doubtful cases. If, on the 
other hand, they are desirous of either knowing the history, 
or of reasoning on the principles of the English language, 
their usual studies are insufficient ; no amount of rules will 
teach either the one or the other. 

I have no hesitation in asserting, that, out of every hun- 
dred statements made by the current writers on the English 
language, ninety-nine come under one of the two following 
predicaments : they either contain that which is incorrect, 
and better not known at all, or something that was known 
before, and would have been known independent of any gram- 
matical lesson whatever. 

Whether an historical and grammatical knowledge of a 
man's mother-tongue (in other w^ords, the theory of it) be 
w^orth superadding to a mere practical power of using it with 
average correctness for the purposes of writing and speak- 



Vm PREFACE. 

ing, is a point upon which I abstain from an opinion. I 
am only certain that such knowledge is not to be won with- 
out an effort, or, to speak more specifically, without the 
exertion of the understanding as well as the exercise of the 
memory. 

Upper Southwick Street, 
April 25, 1847. 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



The following pages are laid before the public with the 
view of supplying beginners in Grammar with information 
more in accordance with the present state of learning than 
that which is afforded by the grammars currently in use. 
Of these, each and all have the same merits and the same 
defects. In the matter of Syntax they are the least faulty ; 
although even in this department they err, at times, most 
grievously. Notwithstanding this, the strong sense that 
characterizes the reasoning of Cobbett affords an intellectual 
exercise, even where the facts upon which it works are 
wrong ; whilst the copiousness of illustration in Lindley 
Murray has its value as exercises and in the way of practice. 
Here, however, the praise of the usual grammarians ends. 
What they teach in the way of Etymology, what they 
exhibit as constituting the structure of language, and what 
they indicate as the general principles of language, are 
matters that they supply only for the sake of being un- 
learned when the researches of the student become extended. 
No person conversant with modern philology will consider 
this statement as overcharged. 

What the following pages profess to exhibit is refer- 
rible to two heads : firstly, the special details of the struc- 
ture of the English language ; secondly, certain facts and 
reasonings in general grammar. These latter points are 
h 



X PREFACE. 

incorporated with the former, for the following reasons. 
It is not from the grammars either of classical languages 
or from those of any foreign tongue, that the first knowl- 
edge of the general principles of Grammar is best derived ; 
although such is a current, if not a universal, opinion. 
We best learn the theory of a language when we study 
it independently of the practice. We may see this by ask- 
ing whether the meaning of words like Case, Concord, Gov- 
ernment, Noun, &;c., is best collected from the grammar 
of a known or an unknown language. In the latter case, 
the attention is divided between the general principles of 
grammar, common to all languages, and the special details 
of the particular language in question. In the former case, 
the familiarity with the details leaves the attention undivided 
for the comprehension of general principles. Whatever be 
the country of the student, the analysis of his native tongue 
is best practised in general grammar. 

Having indicated the mixed character of my work, I wish 
to state with what views I would have it judged. There 
is much in Grammar that is indeterminate. Most of the 
terms are unsettled, and many of the definitions have yet 
to be agreed upon. Such being the case, an author has a 
choice between two modes of proceeding. He may either 
lay down his assertions peremptorily, demanding an acqui- 
escence in his authority ; or he may, by full and sufficient 
trains of reasoning upon each doubtful term and upon each 
unrecognized generalization, exhaust the subject, and convince 
his reader. To have taken up the former plan would have 
been opposite to the purpose of the author, whose intention 
it was that the character of his book should be disdplinal; to 
have ventured upon the latter would have extended the work 
to an indefinite length. Between these two methods, how- 
ever, there was an intermediate one. In the first place, the 
present is no independent work, but an elementary form of a 
fuller and more critical volume ; in which volume definitions 
are fixed and doubts discussed. In the next place, the pre- 



PREFACE. XI 

tensions of the book are limited. There are a vast number 
of questions in respect not only to points of general gram- 
mar, but even in respect to special facts in the English 
language, to v^hich no categorical answer in the present state 
of philology can be given ; to such questions as, How many 
cases 1 How many parts of speech ? How many irregular 
verbs are there in English? no cautious grammarian would 
venture an unqualified answer. The reply depends upon the 
definition of the words case, parts of speech, and irregular; 
and, in respect to these, it will be long before there is full 
unanimity. The present book will not enable the student to 
give off-hand answers on doubtful points. It will, however, 
present him with new and numerous facts, and habituate him 
to the reasoning upon them. 

For what precise age of the student any work of instruc- 
tion may be designed, is in few departments of knowledge 
easy to be accurately determined. A book addressed to the 
understanding should be taken up a few years later than one 
addressed more particularly to the memory. It is considered 
by the author that the same degree of attention, the same 
effort of thought, that understands the first principles of arith- 
metic and geometry, will also understand the subject-matter 
of the present volume. This, it is conceived, recommends 
the work in question to the middle and higher, but not to the 
lower parts of schools. 

The amount of preliminary knowledge on other subjects 
required for the study of the work in question is ascertained 
more easily. It can be wholly mastered independent of any 
knowledge either of the classical languages or of Logic. 

During the perusal of the first part, the student should 
have before him, and continually refer to, a map of Ger- 
many and Northern Europe. A sufficient knowledge of the 
general history is presumed ; since it cannot be said that, in 
expecting a knowledge of what is meant by such terms as 
the Norman Conquest, we look for too much on the part of 
the learner. The words quoted from the Anglo-Saxon 



XU PREFACE. 

should be written down, and the parts wherein they differ 
from the English should be carefully marked by means of 
underlining. The pronunciation is a secondary affair. 

In Part II. the assistance of the teacher will be most 
wanted. The description of a sound is difficult ; so that he 
should be prepared to exhibit the nature of our elementary 
sounds orally, and to make the pupil repeat after him until 
his familiarity with the properties of the different sounds 
become perfect. (See ^§ 42, 43, 45.) From Part 11. the 
student may proceed to the Prosody (Part Y.), since by so do- 
ing he completes his familiarity with those points of grammar 
which are so essential and elementary as accent and quantity. 

Of Part III. the first fifteen sections should be studied 
slowly and repeatedly, since upon his familiarity with these 
will depend the clearness of the student's views respecting 
the nature and number of the parts of speech, and his appre- 
ciation of the rules of Syntax. In the remainder of Part III. 
free use must be made of the pen, and all foreign words that 
are quoted in illustration of an English one must, as before, 
be written down. The sections upon Composition and Deri- 
vation (§§ 274-311) may be omitted in the first reading. 

Before entering upon the Syntax (PartlY.) the Etymology 
should be gone through twice, and the sections explanatory 
of the structure of propositions more than twice. 

Such seems to the author the amount of time and attention 
requisite to obtain clear ideas in general grammar, and a 
know^ledge in detail of the structure of the English language. 
Upon these points, where the attempt at explanation and 
illustration is most visible, such time and attention should 
more especially be bestowed. A few fundamental points 
familiarly understood serve as a key to the rest. What these 
are the teacher will collect from the degree to which the ex- 
position of them is extended. Amongst others, it may be 
necessaiy to indicate ^^ 45, 46, 54, 82, 88-102. 

University College, 
July2Qth, 1843. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

§ 1. Distribution of the English Language over the 
British Isles, — With the exception of a few places on 
the frontier of Wales, the English language is spoken 
exclusively throughout all the counties of England. 

§ 2. It is spoken in Wales, partially ; that is, in 
the Principality of Wales there are two languages, 
viz. the English, and the Welsh as well. 

§ 3. It is also spoken in Scotland, partially ; that 
is, in the northern and western counties of Scotland 
there are two languages, the English, and a language 
called the Scotch Gaelic as well. 

§ 4. It is also spoken in Ireland, partially ; that 
is, in several of the counties of Ireland there are two 
languages, the English, and a language called the Irish 
Gaelic as well. 

§ 5. It is also spoken in the Isle of Man, partially ; 
that is, in the Isle of Man there are two languages, 
the English, and a language called the Manx as well. 



X> HISTORY OF 

§ 6. Finally, it is spoken in the United States of 
America, in Canada, in Australia, and, more or less, 
in all the English colonies and dependencies. 

Extension of the English Language over different 
and distant Countries. — The extension of the English 
language heyond the British Isles is a recent event, 
when compared with its extension over the British Isles 
in the early periods of our history. Indeed, the former 
has taken place almost entirely since the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth. It was then that the first English 
colony, that of Virginia, was planted in North Amer- 
ica ; and it was only natural that the emigrants who 
left England should take their language with them. 
Upon the shores of America it came in contact and 
collision with the numerous dialects of the native In- 
dians ; and upon these it encroached, just as, a thou- 
sand years before, it had encroached upon the original 
British of Britain. Numerous languages then disap- 
peared entirely, and, at the same time, the tribes who 
spoke them. Sometimes they were wholly extermi- 
nated ; sometimes they were driven far into the in- 
terior of the land. In a short time, populous cities 
stood upon the hunting-grounds of the expelled tribes, 
and the language of the mother country became natu- 
ralized in a New World. The subsequent settlement 
of Maryland, Georgia, and the remaining States of 
America completed the preponderance of the English 
language from the boundaries of Canada to the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

During the Protectorate of Cromwell, the island of 
Jamaica was taken from the Spaniards, and from that 
time forwards the English has been the language of a 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 3 

greater part of the West Indian Islands. Here, also, 
it gradually displaced the dialects of the native Indians. 

In Canada, it first took root after the taking of Que- 
bec by General Wolfe, in the reign of George the 
Second. As Canada, however, had been previously 
a French colony, the European language that was first 
spoken there was not the English, but the French. 
Hence, when Quebec was taken, the language of the 
country fell into two divisions. There were the differ- 
ent dialects of the original Indians, and there was 
the French of the first European colonists. At the 
present moment, both these languages maintain their 
ground ; so that the English is spoken only partially 
in Canada, the French and the Indian existing by the 
side of it. 

At the Cape of Good Hope the English is spoken 
in a similar manner ; that is, it is spoken partially. 
The original inhabitants were the Caff re and Hottentot 
tribes of Africa, and the earliest European colonists 
were the Dutch. For these reasons, Dutch and Eng- 
lish, conjointly with the Hottentot and Caffrarian dia- 
lects, form the language of the Cape of Good Hope. 
In Guiana, too, in South America, English and Dutch 
are spoken in the neighborhood of each other, for 
the same reason as at the Cape. 

In Asia the English language is spoken in India ; 
but there the original languages of the country are 
spoken to far greater extent than is the case in either 
America or Africa. 

Australia and New Zealand are exclusively Eng- 
lish colonies, and, consequently, in Australia and New 
Zealand English is the only European language that is 



4 HISTORY OF 

spoken. In each of these settlements it encroaches 
upon the native dialects. 

Malta, Gibraltar, Heligoland, Guernsey, and Jersey, 
and many other localities of less note, are isolated 
spots, which, being portions of the English dominions, 
use the English language, 

§ 7. Extension of the English Language over the 
British Isles. — As late as the reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth, and even later, the English language was not 
spoken universally and exclusively even in England. 
A second language was spoken in Cornwall, called the 
Cornish. 

§ 8. As^ late as the reign of King Stephen, a lan- 
guage very closely resembling the Welsh was spoken 
in Cumberland and Westmoreland. 

§ 9. In the first, second, and third centuries, the 
English language was either not spoken in Great 
Britain at all, or spoken very partially indeed. 

A little consideration will show that the extension of 
the English language over the different English coun- 
ties, and over the British Isles in general, was carried 
on in the same way as the extension of the English 
language over countries like America, Australia, and 
New Zealand. In America, Australia, and New Zea- 
land there were the original native languages, origi- 
nally spoken by the original inhabitants. There was 
just the same in England. 

In America, Australia, and New Zealand the native 
languages still continue to be spoken, side by side with 
the English, although only partially. It is just the 
same in Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. 
In all these portions of the British Isles, the native Ian- 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. O 

guages Still continue. They are encroached upon by 
the English ; still, however, they continue. By observ- 
ing this, we understand the important fact, that, even in 
England^ the English language is no native tongue, 
but an imported one ; whereas the really native lan- 
guages of Great Britain were languages allied to the 
present Welsh, Gaelic, and Manx. These, however, 
as the English dialects gradually extended themselves, 
gradually retreated. 

§ 10. It is commonly stated that the particular part 
of the continent of Europe, from which the English 
language was introduced into England, is that tract 
which extends along the sea-coast from the peninsula 
of Jutland in the kingdom of Denmark, to the mouth 
of the Rhine in Holland. But a more critical exami- 
nation of the subject makes it probable that the part of 
Europe from which the language came into England 
coincides nearly with the present kingdom of Hanover. 

§ 11. Accredited Details of the Different Immigra- 
tions from Germany into Britain. — Until lately the 
details of the different Germanic invasions of England, 
both in respect to the particular tribes by which they 
were made, and the order in which they succeeded 
each other, were received with but little doubt, and as 
little criticism. 

Respecting the tribes by which they were made, the 
current opinion was, that they were chiefly, if not exclu- 
sively, those of the Jutes^ the Saxons^ and the Angles, 

The invasions are said to have been as follows : — 

§ 12. First Settlement of Invaders from Germany. — 
In the year 449 a. d. the invaders from Northern Ger- 
many made the first permanent settlement in Britain. 



b - HISTORY OF 

Ebbsfleet, in the Isle of Thanet, was the spot where 
they landed ; and the particular name that these tribes 
gave themselves was that of Jutes. Their leaders were 
Hengist and Horsa. Six years after their landing they 
had established the kingdom of Kent ; so that the coun- 
ty of Kent was the first district where the original Brit- 
ish was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present 
English, introduced from Germany. 

§ 13. Second Settlement of Invaders from Germany, 

— In the year 477 a. d. invaders from Northern Ger- 
many made the second permanent settlement in Britain. 
The coast of Sussex was the spot whereon they landed. 
The particular name that these tribes gave themselves 
was that of Saxons, Their leader was Ella. They 
established the kingdom of the South Saxons (Sussex) ; 
so that the county of Sussex was the second district 
where the original British was superseded by the moth- 
er-tongue of the present English, introduced from 
Northern Germany. 

§ 14. Third Settlement of Invaders from Germany, 

— In the year 495 a. d. invaders from Northern Ger- 
many made the third permanent settlement in Britain. 
The coast of Hampshire was the spot whereon they 
landed. Like the invaders last mentioned, these tribes 
were Saxons. Their leader was Cerdic. They estab- 
lished the kingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex) ; so 
that the county of Hants was the third district where 
the original British was superseded by the mother- 
tongue of the present English, introduced from North- 
ern Germany. 

<5» 15. Fourth Settlement of Invaders from Germany. 
— A. D. 530, certain Saxons landed in Essex ; so that 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 7 

the county of Essex was the fourth district where the 
original British was superseded by the mother-tongue 
of the present English, introduced from Northern Ger- 
many. 

§ 16. Fifth Settlement of Invaders from Germany, 

— These were Angles in Norfolk and Suffolk. This 
settlement, of which the precise date is not known, took 
place during the reign of Cerdic in Wessex. The fifth 
district where the original British was superseded by 
the mother-tongue of the present English was the coun- 
ties of Norfolk and Suffolk ; the particular dialect in- 
troduced being that of the Angles, 

§ 17. Sixth Settlement of Invaders from Germany, 

— In the year 547 a. d. invaders from Northern Ger- 
many made the sixth permanent settlement in Britain. 
The southeastern counties of Scotland, between the 
rivers Tweed and Forth, were the districts where they 
landed. They were of the tribe of the Angles, and 
their leader was Ida. The southeastern parts of Scot- 
land constituted the sixth district where the original 
British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the 
present English, introduced from Northern Germany. 

§ 18. Unfortunately, the evidence on which the de- 
tails just given rest is traditional, not historical. The 
chief authority for these events is Bede, a historian who 
wrote more than three hundred years after the supposed 
landing of Hengist and Horsa. Some of the incidents 
purporting to have taken place in the course of the va- 
rious invasions are evidently fictitious, and such as be- 
long to those epic traditions upon which the early his- 
tory of such nations is founded. 

Further, there is reason to think that there were Ger- 



8 HISTORY OF 

mans in Britain long before the invasion of Hengist and 
Horsa. 

Further, there is reason to doubt that Jutes had any 
real place among the Germanic invaders of England. 

§ 19. Now, as one of the tribes that invaded Eng- 
land from the coast of Germany called itself the Saxons^ 
the language thus introduced was for some time called 
the Saxon language ; indeed, at the present moment the 
English is so called in Welsh, Manx, and Gaelic. 

§ 20. As another of the tribes that invaded England 
from the coast of Germany called itself the Angles^ the 
language thus introduced was for some time called the 
Angle language ; indeed, it is from the particular tribe 
of the Angles that the country has taken the name of 
England. 

§ 21. The death of Ecbert took place in 836, a. d. 
It is believed that not long after the time of Ecbert the 
different Angle and Saxon tribes had become consoli- 
dated into a single people. It is also believed that 
about the same time the different dialects had become 
treated as a single language ; the name by which this 
language is known being Anglo-Saxon. The Anglo- 
Saxon is the mother-tongue of the present English. 

The history of England, from the time of Ecbert to 
the battle of Hastings, is the history of the Anglo-Saxon 
language. During that time it was the language both 
of the learned and unlearned, and was a written lan- 
guage as well as a spoken one. Not only was it writ- 
ten, but it was one of the earliest cultivated languages 
of modern Europe ; so much so, that, before there was 
a single line written either in French or Italian, in 
Spanish or Portuguese, there was a considerable Anglo- 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. \) 

Saxon literature. Whilst a corrupted form of the Latin 
was the medium of communication through the southern 
half of Western Europe, the language of England was 
the language of legislators, annalists, and poets. So 
early, indeed, was the Anglo-Saxon applied to poetry, 
that the earliest specimens of Anglo-Saxon verse repre- 
sent the manners and legends of a time previous to the 
introduction of Christianity, and during the time of Ger- 
man Paganism. Nay, more, they represent the man- 
ners and legends of a time when our ancestors belonged 
to Germany rather than to the island of Britain. 

§ 22. The Anglo-Saxon is the Mother- Tongue of the 
present English. — Nevertheless, if we compare the 
present English of the nineteenth century with the 
Anglo-Saxon of the ninth, the following points of differ- 
ence will be observed : — 

1. The Anglo-Saxon language contained words that 
are either wanting in the present English, or, if found, 
used in a different sense. 



A. S. 


English. 


A. S. 


English. 


lyft 


air 


swithe 


very 


lichoma 


body 


sare 


very 


stefn 


voice 


sith 


late 


theod 


people 


reccan 


care ahout 


ece 


everlasting 


ongitan 


understand 


hwset 


sharp 


sweltan 


die^ &c. 



These words, which are very numerous, although lost 
(or changed as to meaning) in the current English, are 
often preserved in the provincial dialects. 

2. The present English contains words that were 
either wanting in the Anglo-Saxon, or, if found, used 



10 



HISTORY OF 



in a different sense, — voice^ people^ conjugal^ pliiloso- 
pJiy^ alchemist^ very^ survey^ shawl ^ and other words, 
to the amount of some hundreds. These have been 
introduced since the time of the Anglo-Saxons, from 
the Latin, Greek, French, Arabic, and other languages. 
3. Words found in both Anglo-Saxon and English 
appear in different forms in the different languages. 



A. S. 


English. 


A. S. 


English. 


an 

eahta 


one 
eight 


giers 
ic 


grass 
I 


nygon 
endlufon 


nine 
eleven 


sprsec 
eage 


speech 
eye^ &c. 



4. The Anglo-Saxon contained grammatical forms 
that are wanting in the present English. 



A. S. 


English. 


A. S. 


English. 


iwng-ena 


tongues 


god-ra 


good 


word-a 


words 


wi-^ 


we two 


treow-w 


trees 


gi-^ 


ye two 


godi-an 


good 


liwo-ne 


loho-m 


god-re 


good 


we hx^'iath 


we love 


god-/ie 


good 


we \\x^'odon 


we loved 


god-es 


good 


to luf-ianne 


to love^ &c. 



5. The present English contains grammatical forms 
that were wanting in Anglo-Saxon. The words ours^ 
yours ^ theirs^ hers^ were unknown in Anglo-Saxon. 

6. Grammatical forms found both in the Anglo- 
Saxon and the English, appear in different forms in 
the different languages. 



A. S. 


English. 


A. S. 


Enghsh. 


smith-e5 


smith'^s 


hva-m 


who-m 


5mith-a5 


smiths 


blets-ocZe 


hless-ed. &c 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11 

7. Phrases and sentences were used in Anglo-Saxon 
which are inadmissible in the present English. 

8. Phrases and sentences are used in the modern 
English which were inadmissible in Anglo-Saxon. 

§ 23. A fresh language was introduced into England 
by the Norman Conquest. This may be called either 
Anglo-Norman^ or Norman- French. 

In the year 1066 a. d. Edward the Confessor died, 
and was succeeded by Harold, who was the last of 
the Anglo-Saxon kings of England. Upon the 28th 
of September of the same year, William, Duke of 
Normandy, landed at Pevensey in Sussex ; and on 
the 18th of October was fought the decisive battle of 
Hastings. Now the language of William the Con- 
queror was by no means akin to the Anglo-Saxon ; 
indeed, it was as different from it as the Anglo-Saxon 
was from the original British. And the language of 
his followers was the same. It was wholly foreign to 
England. It was a language of France, just as the 
Anglo-Saxon was a language of Germany ; and it 
encroached upon the Anglo-Saxon of England just as 
that language, some centuries before, had encroached 
upon the original British. 

And just as the languages or dialects akin to the 
Anglo-Saxon are to be sought for in Germany, so are 
the languages or dialects akin to the Norman to be 
sought for in France. The Anglo-Saxon of the fol- 
lowers of Hengist and Horsa resembled the modern 
German and Dutch. The Norman of the followers of 
William the Conqueror resembled the modern French. 

The change effected upon the English language by 
the Norman Conquest was not less than the change 



12 HISTORY OF 

effected by the same event upon the property of the 
country, its habits, its liberties, and its constitution ; 
and the resuUs of the battle of Hastings upon the 
literature of England were proportionate to the altera- 
tion of our language. Perhaps there were not a hun- 
dred men in William's army who understood the Anglo- 
Saxon idiom. Even those who spoke it despised it, as 
the language of a conquered nation. Now it was natu- 
ral that the language of the king should be the lan- 
guage of his attendants also ; and hence, the great 
nobles who composed his court spoke Anglo-Norman 
amongst their equals, Anglo-Saxon to their servants. 
The language of the nobles was the language of the ' 
lawyers, and the language of the lawyers was the 
language of the Church ; so that the court, the courts 
of law, and the cloisters, were equally Normanized. 
Then, as a great portion of the original landholders, 
were dispossessed, and their estates transferred to Nor- 
man barons, and as the new lords of the soil resided 
on their estates, and sun'ounded themselves with nu- 
merous retainers, the language that was spoken in the 
great towns became the language, more or less, of the 
country around. Without knowing the exact extent to 
which the Anglo-Norman displaced the Anglo-Saxon, 
we know the following particular facts : — 

1. Letters even of a private nature were written 
in Latin till the beginning of the reign of Edward the 
First, soon after 1270, when a sudden change brought 
in the use of French. 

2. Conversation between the members of the Uni- 
versities was ordered to be carried on either in Latin 
or French. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 13 

3. The minutes of the Corporation of London, re- 
corded in the town clerk's office, were in French, 
as well as the proceedings in Parliament and in the 
courts of justice. 

4. In grammar-schools, boys were made to construe 
their Latin into French. 

On the other hand, the Anglo-Norman of England 
was not exactly the same as the French of France. 
In the reign of Edward the Third, Chaucer, describing 
the manners of an English nun, says that " she spoke 
French cleverly, but as it was spoken in the school of 
Stratford-le-Bow, rather than as it was spoken at Paris," 

*' And Frenche she spake full feteously, 
After the scole of Stratford atte Bowe, 
Tor French of Parys was to her unknowe." 

Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 

§ 24. From the battle of Hastings to the death of 
John, the language of England is called, not Anglo- 
Saxon, but Semi-Saxon, or Half-Saxon, 

§ 25. From the death of John to the death of Ed-^ ^""'^ 
ward the Second, the language of England is called 
Old English. 

§ 26. From the death of Edward the Second to the 
death of Queen Mary, the language of England is 
called Middle English. 

§ 27. The period of the New^ or Modern English, 
begins with the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and is the 
English of the present time. 

Such are the stages of the English language, which, 
if we look to the English period alone, form three 
divisions, named (as above) Old English, Middle Eng- 
lish, and New English. By adding the two stages of 



14 HISTORY OF 

the Anglo-Saxon (i. e. of the Anglo-Saxon properly 
so called, and of the &7?zi-Saxon), we increase the 
number to five. Now the divisions thus established 
are of great practical convenience in the consideration 
of the history of our language. Nevertheless, it must 
not be supposed that the transition from one stage to 
another is by any means so sudden and definite as it 
appears to be according to the preceding dates. It 
cannot be believed that, exactly at the death of King 
John, the language changed from Semi-Saxon to Old 
English, or, exactly at the accession of Edward the 
Third, from Old English to Middle. The change was 
gradual. The reigns, however, of the kings are taken 
for the sake of putting the epochs in question in the 
form best fitted for being remembered. For the sake, 
however, of explaining the real nature of the changes 
of the English language, the following sketch of its 
history is annexed. 

The first four reigns after the Conquest were un- 
favorable to the cultivation of literature at all ; since 
the influence of the Norman-French, although sufficient 
to depress the Anglo-Saxon, was not suflicient to estab- 
lish a flourishing literature of its own. Some works 
were composed in hotli languages. They were, how- 
ever, in each case, both few and unimportant. 
/ / ^'f Henry the Second. — The reign of Henry the Second 
was a favorable period for one of the languages of Eng- 
land, viz. for the Norman-French (or Anglo-Norman). 
It was also favorable for another language allied to the 
Anglo-Norman, but by no means identical with it. The 
river Loire, in France, forms a boundary between the 
northern class of French dialects and the southern 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 

class ; the Anglo-Norman belonging to the former. 
The marriage of Henry the Second with Eleanor of 
Aquitaine introduced relations between England and the 
southern portions of France ; whereas the influence of 
the Conquest had been to create a connection with Nor- 
mandy only. A fresh form of literature, in a fresh 
form of the French language, followed the intercourse 
between England on the one hand and the southern 
portion of France on the other, whilst the name for this 
language and literature was Provengal^ — i. e. the lan- 
guage and literature of Provence. Now, although this 
new influence deserves to be noted, it is not to be com- 
pared with the influence of either the Anglo-Norman or 
the original Semi-Saxon ; still it deserves to be noted. 
Hence, the Provencal was a third language applied to 
the literature of the English. A fourth language was 
the Latin, this being at that time, and having been pre- 
viously, what it long continued, the language of the 
learned throughout Europe. 

/2 / 4. Henry the Third. — A proclamation of Henry the 
Third to the people of Huntingdonshire is generally 
considered to be the first specimen of English^ properly 
so called, i. e. of English as opposed to Semi-Saxon. 
Date, A. D. 1258. Still the preponderating language for 
written compositions is the Norman-French (or Anglo- 
Norman). 

I Z 1 ) Edward the Third, — This is the reign when the 
reaction of the original English against the Norman- 
French began, and the time from which it steadily and 
progressively increased. The father of English poetry, 
Geoffrey Chaucer, wrote under Edward the Third ; so 
did his contemporary WycliflTe, and others of almost 



16 HISTORY OF 

equal importai\ce ; their predecessors, who had written 
in English at all, having written either in the Old Eng- 
lish or the Semi-Saxon. 

v' -^ Edward the Fourth, — The reign in which printing 
was introduced into England by William Caxton. — By 
this time, the Anglo-Norman language had become al- 
most wholly superseded by the English, remaining only 
as the language of a few of the courts of law. The 
English, however, as may be expected, has changed 
from the English of Chaucer, and is approaching the 
character of the English of the writers under Henry the 
Eighth. In South Britain no poetical successor worthy 
of comparison with Chaucer has appeared. In Scot- 
land, however, there is the dawning of a bright period, 
— the reign of James the Fourth. 

/-"'"? Henry the Eighth, — The establishment of the Prot- 
estant religion, and the revival of classical learning, 
are the two great influences in the reign of Henry the 
Eighth ; the effects of both upon the style of our writ- 
ers and the language itself being beneficial. The 
works of Sir Thomas More, and the earliest translations 
of the Bible, are the chief instances of the now rapidly 
increasing English literature. The great Scotch poet 
of this time is Dunbar. 

Elizabeth, — During the long reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth the language underwent considerable change, and 
the early Elizabethan writers are much less like the 
writers of the present century than the later ones. In- 
deed, what is called the age of Queen Elizabeth com- 
prises the reign of James the First, and part of that of 
Charles the First. This is the age of Shakespeare and 
his contemporary dramatists. It is also the time when 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 17 

the present translation of the Bible was made. The 
extent to which the English of the time in question is 
marked by peculiar indications of antiquity is generally 
known ; so that the present general sketch of the his- 
tory of the English language ends with the death of 
James the First. 

§ 28. What has just preceded is an exhibition of the 
stages of the English language ; through which it passed 
between the period of the Anglo-Saxons and the present 
day. Beyond this, it is necessary to be informed con- 
cerning certain languages of Germany and the North 
of Europe, to which the Anglo-Saxon, the mother- 
tongue of the present English, is allied. 

§ 29. Old Saxon. — The language spoken in the 
present province of Westphalia, and in the districts 
about Cleves, Essen, and Munster, was closely akin to 
the Anglo-Saxon. This language is called the Old 
Saxon. 

§ 30. Old Frisian. — This was the language of the 
present province of Friesland, and of the parts north 
and south of that district. The Old Frisian is closely 
allied to the Anglo-Saxon, and stands in the same rela- 
tion to the modern Dutch, spoken in Holland, as the 
Anglo-Saxon does to the English. 

§ 31. Old High German. — By tracing towards their 
sources the rivers Rhine, Maine, and Neckar, we come 
to the tracts of country over which another language 
akin to the Anglo-Saxon was spoken ; namely, Bavaria, 
Alsatia, parts of Lorraine, and of Switzerland, Suabia, 
and Franconia. This language is the mother-tongue of 
the present German. Constance, Strasburg, St. Gall, 
Worms, Spires, Mentz, Wiirzburg, and Fulda, may be 
2 




18 HISTORY OF 

noted as cities where the Old High German was espe- 
cially cultivated. 

§ 32. Mceso- Gothic. — By following the course of 
the Danube we reach the Roman province of Moesia. 
The earliest inhabitants of this province were not akin 
to any of the tribes of Germany, any more than the 
original Britons of England were akin to the Anglo- 
Saxon invaders. However, in the second century of 
the Christian era, the province of Moesia was possessed 
by tribes from the northeastern parts of Germany. 
These were called Goths, or, more specifically, the 
Goths of Moesia. Their language is called Moeso- 
Gothic. 

The earliest written works that occur, either in the 
Anglo-Saxon or the languages allied to it, are Moeso- 
Gothic. Parts of a translation of the Gospels, written 
by a Moeso-Gothic bishop of the name of Ulphilas in 
the fourth century, are still extant, and are of great im- 
portance in illustrating the Anglo-Saxon and the allied 
languages. 

§ 33. Old Norse, — Languages akin to the Anglo- 
Saxon were spoken not only over Germany, but also 
over Denmark, over Sweden, over Norway, and over 
the distant island of Iceland. The languages of these 
countries, when spoken of collectively, and in their ear- 
liest stage, were called the Old Norse. By Old Norse 
(or Northern) is meant the mother-tongue of the present 
Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic, and also 
of the language of the Faroe Isles. 

^ 34. Such are the languages from which the mod- 
ern languages of Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, 
Norway, and Iceland are descended, just as the Eng- 




THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 19 

lish is descended from the Anglo-Saxon. As these 
languages were akin to the Anglo-Saxon, so are the 
modern languages derived from them akin to the Eng- 
lish. 

In this manner the languages just mentioned, both 
ancient and modern, constitute what is called one great 
stock of languages, which stock is named the Gothic 
stock. 



PART II. 

THE SOUNDS, LETTERS, AND ACCENTS. 

§ 35. The simple elementaiy sounds in the present 
English are as follows : — 

1. The sound of the letter a in a/i, father, &c. 

2. The sound of the letter a in fate, hate, ale, pale, 
lait, ail, snake, snail, &c. 

3. The sound of the letter a in fat, pat, hat, that, hat, 
patting, &c. All these three sounds are varieties of 
one and the same original sound. They are generally 
expressed in spelling by the letter a. 

4. The sound of the e in hed, heck, less, net, netting, 
&c. This is a short, quick sound. It is generally ex- 
pressed by the letter e. 

5. The sound of the e in feet, need, seed, seek, leak, 
seat, heat, &c. This sound is often considered as allied 
to the preceding one, and as being merely a lengthened 
variety of it. It is the opinion of the best writers on 
the subject that it is the lengthened form of the vowel 
sound next about to be mentioned. 

6. The sound of the i in tin, pity, pitted, stick, kick, 
&c. This sound is often considered as allied to the 
sound of i in pijie, shine, &c., and as being merely a 
shortened variety of it. It is, however, the opinion of 
the best writers on the subject, that it is a shortened 
form of the sound of e in feet, rather than of the i in 



THE SOUNDS. 21 

pine. This is the view taken of the sound in question 
in all languages except the English. 

7. The sound of the oo in cool^ and of the o in move^ 
prove, 

8. The sound of the u in lull,, full^ pull^ &c. Al- 
though these two last-mentioned sounds are expressed 
in spelling by different letters (the one by w, and the 
other by o), they are evidently allied in utterance. 
They are both varieties of one and the same sound, 
pronounced rapidly in the one case, and slowly in the 
other. The two soi^nds bear the same relation to each 
other as the a in fate bears to the a in fat^ and the ee 
in feet to the i in ft, 

9. The sound of the aw in hawl^ of the au in haul^ 
and of the a in hall^ all^ talk,, &c. This sound is gen- 
erally expressed by the letter a, either alone, as in all 
and hall,, or combined with some other letter, as in haul 
and hawl. This mode of expression is faulty, and con- 
ceals the true nature of the sound. Its real relation is 
to the two sounds that will next be mentioned, to which 
it stands in the same relation that the a in father does 
to the a in fate and the a in fat, 

10. The sound of the o in note,, hoat^ float, no,, so,, 
&c. 

11. The sotmd of the o in not,, knot,, knotty,, &c. 

12. The sound of the u in hut,, nut,, &c. It is doubt- 
ful how far this sound is a separate and independent 
sound, or how far it is a variety of the oo in cool and 
the u in pull. 

The sounds hitherto named are called vowel sounds, 
or vowels, 

13. The sound of the letter w in woe,, will. This 



22 THE SOUNDS. * 

sound is evidently allied to the sound of the oo in cool 
(7). Some writers consider it identical, and assert that 
the words will and oo-il are sounded alike. It is, how- 
ever, convenient to consider the w in will as a separate, 
independent sound. 

14. The sound of the letter y in ye^ yes, yet. This 
sound is evidently allied to the sound of the ee in feet 
(5). Some writers consider it identical, and assert that 
the words yet and ee-et are sounded alike. It is, how- 
ever, convenient to consider the y in yet as a separate, 
independent sound, w and y arf called 5em-vowels 
(i. e. 7ia?f-vowels). 

15. The sound of the letter p in piii, pit, &;c. 

16. The sound of the letter h in hin, hit, &c. 

17. The sound of the letter f in fin. Jit, &c. 

18. The sound of the letter v in van, vane, &c. 

19. The sound of the letter t in tin, tip, teal, neat, &;c. 

20. The sound of the letter d in din, dip, deal, 
need, &c. 

21. The sound of the letters th in tJiin, thick, through, 
cloth, moth, &c. It is here necessary to remark the 
difference that exists between the speaking and the 
spelling. The sound of the th in thin is a simple, single, 
elementary sound ; and, as such, should be expressed 
by a simple, single, elementary letter. Instead of this, 
it is expressed by two letters, or by a combination ; so 
that, although a simple sound to the ear, it has the ap- 
pearance of being a compound one to the eye. It is 
above all things necessary to remember that the real 
sound of h preceded by t is very different from that of 
the th in thin, and that the real sound of the th in thin 
is very different from that of h preceded by t. More 
upon this matter will appear in the sequel. 



THE SOUNDS. 23 

22. The sound of the letters th in thine^ tJiem^ than, 
clothe, Respecting this sound the reader's attention is 
called to two points : — 

1st. That, like the sound last mentioned, it is a sim- 
pie, single, elementary sound, expressed, not by a sim- 
ple, single, elementary sign or letter, but by two letters, 
or a combination. 

2d. That, although different from the sound last 
mentioned (21), it is spelt precisely in the same way. 

The th in thin is allied to the sound of t, as in tin. 

The th in thiiie is allied to the sound of cZ, as in dine, 

23. The sound of the letter A:, as in kill, keep, oak, 
(fee. 

24. The sound of the letter g, as in go, gun, log, 
egg, &c. 

25. The sound of the letter s, as in sin, seal, yes, &:c. 

26. The sound of the letter z, as in zeal, buzz. Maze, 
(fee. 

27. The sound of the letters sh, as in shy, shine, short, 
ash, hush, &c. This sound is in the same predicament 
as sounds 21 and 22. It is a single, simple, elementary 
sound, expressed, not by a single, simple, elementary 
sign or letter, but by two letters, or a combination. The 
real sound of h preceded by s is very different from that 
of the sh in shine ; and the real sound of the sh in shine 
is very different from that of h preceded by s, 

28. The sound of the letter z in azure. Although 
without a corresponding sign or letter, this sound is 
single, simple, and elementary. Its real nature, how- 
ever, is disguised by the various and incorrect methods 
by which it is represented in writing. The sounds of 
the z in azure, the z in glazier ^ and the 5 in pleasure are 



.24 THE SOUNDS. 

identical. This sound is related to the sh in shine in the 
same way as the th in thin is related to the th in thine. 
Moreover, the sh in shine and the % in azure are related 
to the usual sounds of s and z respectively, just as the 
th in thin and the th in thine are respectively related to 
t and d. 

The sounds from 15 to 28, inclusive, are called mute 
sounds, or mutes. 

29. The sound of the letters ng, as in Icings sing^ 
ring. This sound is in the same predicament with 
sounds 21, 22, and 27. It is a simple, single, elemen- 
tary sound, expressed, not by a simple, single, ele- 
mentaiy sign or letter, but by two letters, or a combi- 
nation. The real sound of g preceded by n is very 
different from that of the ng in kiiig^ and the real sound 
of the ng in king is very different from that of g pre- 
ceded by n. 

80. The sound of the letter 7i, as in hot^ hear^ hop^ 
&c. It consists of a simple breathing. 

31. The sound of the letter I in leg,, kill,, &c. 

32. The sound of the letter m in niat^ cram,, &;c. 

33. The sound of the letter n in net,, none,, &c. 

34. The sound of the letter r in row?, hear,, &c. 
These four last-mentioned sounds are called liquids. 

The mutes, liquids, ng,, and A, taken together, are called 
consonants. 

Here ends the list of the simple, single, elementary 
sounds in the English language. 

§ 36. But, besides these, there are six compound 
sounds. 

Of these, four are compounded by means of a vowel, 
and two by means of a consonant. 



THE SOUNDS. 25 

§ 37. The compound sounds formed by vowels fall 
into two divisions. 

§ 38. Compounds formed by means of a vowel and 
the semivowel w. These are two in number : — 

1. The sound of the letters ou in house^ mouse^ &;c. 
The nature of this compound is disguised by the spell- 
ing. It consists of the sound of the a in father^ followed 
by that of the w in will^ rapidly pronounced. 

2. The sound of the letters ew in new^ and also of 
the single letter u (when sounded ew) in muse^ tune^ 
&c. The nature of this compound is disguised by the 
spelling. It consists of the sound of the i in pit,, fol- 
lowed by that of the w in will^ rapidly pronounced. 
When represented by means of the single letter w, the 
spelling gives the erroneous notion of its being a single, 
simple, elementary sound. 

/ § 39. Compounds formed by means of a vowel 
and the semivowel ?/. These, also, are two in num- 
ber : — 

1. The sound of the letter i in pine^ fine ^ find ^ mind. 
The nature of this compound is disguised by the spell- 
ing. ' As it is represented by means of the single letter 
^, the erroneous notion is engendered of its being a 
simple, single, elementary sound ; and also of its being 
the sound of the i in pit^ lengthened in the pronuncia- 
tion. Both these views are wrong. The real elements 
of the sound in question are generally considered to be 
the sound of the a in fat^ followed by that of the y in 
yet^ rapidly pronounced. 

2. The sound of the letters oi in voice^ noise. The 
nature of this compound is sufficiently, although not 
exactly, represented by the spelling. Its real elements 



26 ' THE SOUNDS. 

are the aw in lawl (a variety of the sound of o in note)^ 
and the y in yeU 

§ 40. The compound sounds formed by the union of 
a vowel and a semivowel are called diphthongs. 

§ 41. The compound sounds formed by the union of 
two consonants are two in number : — 

1. The sound of the letters ch in chest. This is real- 
ly the sound of tsh rapidly pronounced. 

2. The sound of the letter j in jest. This is really 
the sound of dzh rapidly pronounced. The letter ^, as 
in gibbet, also represents this sound. 

§ 42. The sounds that constitute language are formed 
by means of the breath passing through the throat and 
mouth, and being acted upon during its passage by the 
tongue, teeth, or lips. 

When the passage of the air is either free, or only 
partially closed, the stream of air passes without inter- 
ruption, and so forms the sounds which are called vowel 
sounds. The first twelve simple elementary sounds 
were vowels. The sounds of a, 6, or o can all be pro- 
nounced with the mouth partially open, and with the 
breath in an uninterrupted stream. 

§ 43. The simple, elementary sounds called conso- 
nants have the following peculiarity. They are unable 
to form even the shortest word or syllable without the 
aid of a vowel. Thus, the vowels a or o are capable 
of being used as syllables, and so are the combinations 
ha or lo. But the single sounds of b\ or l\ if taken by 
themselves, cannot form a word, or even a syllable. 
In order to do so, they must be joined to a vowel, and 
sounded along with it. For this reason they are called 
consonants, from the Latin words con (with) and sonans 



THE SOUNDS. 27 

{sounding) ; whilst the word vowel is derived from the 
Latin word vo calls (vocal) ^ because vowels can be 
sounded by themselves. 

§ 44. Of the six compound sounds, the first four were 
called diphthongs, from the Greek words dis (double)^ 
Sind phtho7ige {a voice)* 

§ 45. The point respecting the nature of the elemen- 
tary sounds with which it is most important, in English 
grammar, to be familiar, is the difference between the 
sounds that are called sharp, and the sounds that are 
called flat. This is of especial importance in dealing 
with the mutes. 

In order to understand this difierence, it is necessary 
to take some mute consonants (j9, h^f, v, i, d, ih. A:, g, 
s, 2, sA, %h), and to pronounce them as independently 
of any vowel as it is possible to do. We must try to 
give a sound to such single consonants as p\ t\ &c. 
In attempting this, we shall succeed in making an im- 
perfect sound. 

Now, if the mute consonant so taken and uttered be 
one of the following, p,/, t, th (as in thin), k, 5, or 5^, 
the sound will be that of a whisper. The sound of p\ 
f, (such as it is,) is that of a man speaking under the 
natural pitch of his voice, and at a whisper. 

But if the mute consonant so taken and uttered be 
either 5, v, d, th (as in thine), g, %, or %h, the sound will 
be that of a man speaking at the natural pitch of his 
voice, and with a certain degree of loudness and clear- 
ness. This difference in the nature of the mute it is 
highly important to be familiar with. Those that are 
sounded likep' and/', &c., are called the sharp mutes. 
Those that are sounded like V and i;', &c., are called 
the flat mutes. 



28 



THE SOUNDS. 








Flat. 


f 


b 


. V 


thi 


d 


. . th2 


— 


g' 


. . 


sh 


z 


. . z4 



Sharp. 

P • • 
t . . 
k . . 



Sounds that correspond with one another, as sharp 
and Jlat, and Jlat and sharp ^ are called equivalents to 
one another. Thus : — 

p is the sharp equivalent of h, 
h is the flat equivalent of p, 
fis the sharp equivalent of i;. • 
V is the flat equivalent of /. 
§ 46. Rule 1. When two or more mutes of differ- 
ent degrees of sharpness or flatness come together in the 
same syllable^ they for jn a combination of sounds that is 
incapable of being pronounced. 

This may be understood by practising a few combi- 
nations, according to the above table. The sharp mutes 
are arranged on the left, the flat ones on the right side 
of the line. Now, taking whatever letter we may from 
the one side of the line, and joining it immediately, in 
the same syllable, with any letter whatever from the 
other side of the line, we find the combination unpro- 
nounceable. 



abt, 


avt^ 


abth^ 


avth. 


agt, 


agP^ 


^gf^ 


ags. 


apd, 


afb, 


apv, 


afd. 


atb^ 


akd^ 


akz^ 


akb. 


asd^ 


ashd^ 


asg, 


ashg^ &DC. 


^ As in thin. 






2 As in thine. 


3 As in gun. 






* As in azure. 



THE SOUNDS. 29 

Of course, combinations of this sort can be written, and 
they can be spelt (indeed, in English, as written com- 
binations they occur very frequently ; e. g. stags ^ lads^ 
&:c., (fee). For them to become pronounceable, a change 
must occur ; one of the sounds must change its charac- 
ter, and so accommodate itself to the other. 

Rule 2. A sharp mute immediately preceded hy a 
flat one is changed into its flat equivalent, and a flat 
mute immediately preceded by a sharp one is changed 
into its sharp equivalent. 

Thus, aht becomes pronounceable either by h becom- 
ing j9, or by t passing into d ; in other words, it changes 
either into apt or into ahd. So on with the rest. 

avt becomes either aft, or avd. 



abth 


;; 


(; 


apth, or ahdh. 


agt 


(C 


(C 


akt, or agd. 


ags 


(; 


(( 


aks, or agz. 


apd 


c; 


(C 


apt, or ahd. 


asd 


a 


(; 


ast, or azd. 


ashd 


u 


u 


asht, or azhd. 


asg 


u 


(.(. 


ask, or azg. 



This change is necessary and universal. It holds good, 
not for the English alone, but for all languages. The 
only difference is, that different languages change differ- 
ent letters ; that is, one language accommodates the first 
letter to the second, and so turns agt into akt ; whilst 
another accommodates the second letter to the first, 
changing agt into agd. 

There is no fact that requires to be more familiarly 
known than this ; since there are at least three forma- 
tions in the English language where its influence is most 



30 THE SOUNDS. 

important. These are the possessive forms in -5, the 
plurals in -5, the preterites in -d and -t. 

Neither are there many facts in language more dis- 
guised than this is disguised in Enghsh. The 5 in the 
word stags is sharp ; the g in the word stags is flat* 
Notwithstanding this, the combination ags exists. It 
exists, however, in the spelling only. In speaking, the 
s is sounded as 2, and the word stags is pronounced 
stagz. Again, in words like tossed^ plucked^ looked^ the 
e is omitted in pronunciation. Hence the words become 
tossd^ pluckd, lookd ; that is, the flat d comes in contact 
with the sharp k and s. Now, this combination ex- 
ists in the spelling only ; since the preterites of plucky 
look^ and toss are, in speech^ pronounced pluckt^ lookt^ 
tosst. 

For the sake of fixing the attention of the reader on 
the point, I will indicate in this place the reason for the 
difference between the spelling and the pronunciation, 
which has just been alluded to. This is as follows : For 
the possessive case singular, for the nominative plural, 
and for the preterite tense of verbs, the forms in Anglo- 
Saxon were fuller than they are in the present English. 
The possessive singular ended not in -5 only, but in -es ; 
and the nominative plural in -as. Similarly the preterite 
of the verbs ended either in -od or -ed^ not in -d only. 
E. g. wordes =:ofa word {or word'^s) ^ Jlodes = of a flood 
{ov flood'' s)^ landes =zofa land (or land'^s)^ thinges ""^ of 
a thing (or thing'' s), endas = ends^ and so on throughout 
the language. In this case the vowel separated the two 
consonants, and kept them from coming together. As 
long as this vowel kept its place, the consonants re- 
mained unchanged, their different degrees of sharpness 



THE SOUNDS. 31 

and flatness being a matter of indifference. When, how- 
ever, the vowel was dropped, the consonants came in 
contact. This reduced a change on one side or the 
other to a matter of necessity. 

§ 47. Next to knowing that two mutes of different 
degrees of sharpness or flatness cannot come together 
in the same syllable, it is important to be acquainted 
with the following rule. 

Rule 3. Two identicul letters cannot come together 
in the same syllable. 

In illustration of this, we may take a word ending in 
jt?, ^, or 5, such as ta.p^ hat^ or mis. To add a second p^ 
a second t, or a second 5, is impracticable. At the first 
glance this statement seems untrue. Nothing, appar- 
ently, is commoner than words like tapp^ hatt^ miss. 
However, like the combinations indicated above, these 
are, in reality, combinations in spelling only ; they have 
no existence in pronunciation. We have only to at- 
tempt to pronounce hatH^ sap^p^ &c., to prove this. 

§ 48. Hitherto we have been concerned with the 
elementary sounds of the English language, and with 
certain peculiarities of certain combinations. In con- 
sidering these matters, it may have been observed by 
the reader that the pronunciation and the spelling do not 
always coincide. Such is. the case with (amongst oth- 
ers) the word stags^ which is pronounced as if the last 
letter was % (stagz). This fact of the diflerence between 
the pronunciation and spelling must be borne in mind ; 
since many words that are sounded alike are spelt dif- 
ferently, and many words that are sounded differently 
are spelt alike. This leads us to the consideration of 
the letters and the alphabet. It is necessary to bear in 



32 LETTERS. 

mind that a letter is not itself a sound, but only the sign 
of a sound. 

§ 49. As exhibited in § 35, the number of the simple 
elementary sounds in English is thirty-four. Of these, 
however, some may be considered, not as original and 
separate sounds, but as mere varieties of some other 
sound ; e. g. 

The three sounds of a, as in father^ fate^ and fat^ 
may be considered as varieties of one and the same 
sound. See § 35. 1,2,3. 

The sounds of i in pit^ and of ee in feet^ may be con- 
sidered as varieties of one and the same sound ; or, if 
this view be not adopted, the ee in feet may be consid- 
ered as a variety of e in hed. See § 35. 4, 5, 6. 

The sounds of u in hull^ and oo in cool^ may be con- 
sidered as varieties of one and the same sound. See 
§ 35. 7, 8. 

The sounds of the aw in haivl^ and of the o in note 
and not^ may be considered as varieties of one and the 
same sound. See § 35. 9, 10, 11. 

These views would reduce the number of elementary 
sounds in English from thirty-four to twenty-eight. 

To express these twenty-eight sounds in writing, there 
are, in English, the following twenty -six letters : a C: 
i^q.y, vi y, 'ph f V, t d b g § Z ]^ Im n r j. e q X. It is, 
therefor^, easy to see that there are in English more 
sounds to be expressed in writing than there are letters 
to express them by. 

From these twenty-six letters, however, we must sub- 
tract the following : — 

1. The letter j^ as in jest ; since it is not one of the 
twenty-eight simple elementary sounds that this letter 



LETTERS. 33 

is the sign of. The subtraction of the letter j reduces 
the number of letters expressive of the simple sounds to 
twenty-five. 

2. The letter c ; since it expresses only what is as 
well expressed by either s or k. The words city and 
can are pronounced sity and kan respectively. The 
subtraction of the letter c reduces the number of letters 
expressive of the simple sounds to twenty-four. 

3, 4. The letters q and x ; since q is only kw (or 
cw)^ and x is only ks (or cs). The words queen and 
hox are pronounced cween (or kween) and hoks (or 
hocks ^ or hocs)^ respectively. The subtraction of the 
letters q and x reduces the number of letters to twenty- 
two. 

§ 50. We have now seen that for twenty-eight simple, 
elementary sounds there are only twenty-two simple, 
elementary letters ; consequently, six of the simple, ele- 
mentary sounds have no sign or letter corresponding to 
them. These six sounds are, — 

1. The u in hut. This is expressed by the letter u ; 
the proper business of which letter is to express the 
vowel sound in words like hull^ one very different from 
the one in question. 

2. The th in thin. This is a simple sound, and one 
by no means accurately expressed by the combination 
th. In the Greek alphabet, where this sound occurs it 
is expressed by a simple sign, the letter B. The same 
was the case in Anglo-Saxon, where the letter J> was 
similarly used. The loss of the Anglo-Saxon J>, a sim- 
ple sign for a simple sound, is to be regretted. 

3. The th in thine. For this simple, single sound 
the Anglo-Saxons had also a simple, single sign (^) ; 

3 



34 LETTERS. 

the loss of which in the present English is much to be 
regretted. 

4. The sound of the sh in shine. This is a simple, 
single sound, without a sign equally simple and single 
to express it. 

5. The sound of the % in azure. This is a simple, 
single sound, without a sign equally simple and single 
to express it. 

6. The sound of the ng in king. This is a simple, 
single sound, without a sign equally simple and single 
to express it. 

§ 51. In § 49 the letters of the English language 
are arranged in a natural order ; that is, the Vowels 
come first, then the Mutes, then the Aspirate /i, fourth- 
ly the Liquids (Z, m., tz, r), and finally the double letter 
^', with the redundant signs c, ^, and x. Besides this, 
the Mutes that were most akin were placed next each 
other : thus p and Z>, t and d^ came in order ; and 
so on throughout. Thus the arrangement of the let- 
ters, as exhibited in § 49, was a natural arrangement ; 
at least, it was a natural arrangement up to a cer- 
tain point. 

§ 52. The Alphabet. — The order of the letters in 
the English Alphabet is not the natural order. It is 
well known to be as follows lahcdefghijk 
I m n op qrstuvwxyz. This arrangement of 
the English letters is called the Alphabet. In the Greek 
language the name of the first letter (or a) is Alpha^ 
and of the second (or Z>), Beta. From these two words, 
the names of the first two letters, the word Alphabet 
is derived. 

§ 53. In respect to its merits or demerits the Eng- 
lish alphabet is, — 



ACCENTS. 35 

1. Redundant, It contains three superfluous letters, 
viz. c, ^, and x, 

2. Deficient. It wants signs for the six sounds 
mentioned in § 50. 

3. Inconsistent. It expresses the double sound of 
the first letter in jest {dzh) by a single sign, and the 
single sounds of the first letters in thin^ thine^ and 
shine, by two signs (th and sh). 

There are other faults in the English alphabet and 
the English method of spelling, which it is not ne- 
cessary here to enlarge upon. For many of these a 
sufficient, although not a satisfactory, reason can be 
exhibited. 

§ 54. Accent. — Next to the consideration of the 
elementary sounds, and of the letters that represent 
them, comes that of Accent. The nature of accent 
we may exhibit by the word tyrant. 

In this word there is an emphasis, a stress, or a 
raising of the voice, on the first syllable ; that is, on 
the syllable ty. If we chose to express the fact in 
writing we might invent a mark of some sort, and 
place it over or under the syllable ty. We might 
write ti^rant, or tyrant, &c. This raising of the voice, 
this stress, or this emphasis, is called accent. Com- 
pared with the syllable rant, the syllable ty is ac- 
cented ; in other words, the word tyrant is accented on 
the first syllable. 

The word tyranny is in the same predicament. The 
syllable that is accented is the first. 

The word tyrannical is in a different predicament. 
The syllable accented is the second. 

The following is a sample of words accented on the 



86 



ACCENTS. 



first syllable : — anchor^ drgue^ hasten^ father^ foxes^ 
smiting^ Imshand^ market^ vapor ^ hdrefoot^ &c. 

Contrasted with these are the words that will next 
be introduced : — brigade, pretence^ harpoon^ relieve^ 
deter^ assume^ besought^ bereft^ before,, abroad^ abode^ 
abstruse^ &c. Herein the accent is on the last syllable. 

The ear should be familiar with the differences of 
accent in different words. The best practice in this 
matter is to do as follows, viz. to take a word accented 
on the first syllable, and to change the place of the 
accent by removing it to the second, and vice versa ; 
e. g. to pronounce tyrant as if it were tyrant^ market 
as if it were market^ deter as if it were deter. This 
transposition of the accent shows at once the effect 
that accent has upon the sound of words. 

The words quoted above, with their accents trans- 
posed, were fictitious specimens. There are in Eng- 
lish no such words as tyrant^ market^ deter. There 
are, however, in English real specimens of this trans- 
position of the accent. They play an important part 
in the grammar of the language ; since it is a fact in 
English that one and the same word may sometimes 
take its accent on the first, and sometimes on the sec- 
ond syllable, this change of accent being accompanied 
by a change of meaning. We say, I am in a state 
of torment ; but we do not say. These things torment 
me. We say. These things torment me ; but we do 
not say, I am in a state of torment. The reason of 
this difference is, that the word torment when used as 
a noun takes its accent on the first syllable, and when 
used as a verb on the last. 

For the sake of accustoming the ear to the nature 



ACCENTS. 



37 



of accent, the following list of words is subjoined. It 
consists of words identical in every thing but the ac- 
cent. In those of the first column the accent is on 
the first, in those of the second column on the second 
syllable. The words in the first column are Nouns 
{an absent man). The words in the second column 
are Verbs (J absent myself). 



absent 


absent 


extract 


extract 


abstract 


abstract 


ferment 


ferment 


accent 


accent 


frequent 


frequent 


dffix 


aff'ix 


import 


import 


augment 


augment 


incense 


incense 


colleague 


colleague 


insult 


insult 


compact 


compact 


object 


object 


compound 


compound 


perfume 


perfume 


compress 


compress 


permit 


permit 


concert 


concert 


prefix 


prefix 


concrete 


concrete 


premise 


premise 


conduct 


conduct 


presage 


presage 


confine 


confine 


present 


present 


conflict 


conflict 


produce 


produce 


conserve 


conserve 


project 


project 


consort 


consort 


protest 


protest 


contract 


contract 


rebel 


rebel 


contrast 


contrast 


record 


record 


converse 


converse 


refuse 


refuse 


convert 


convert 


subject 


subject 


desert 


desert 


survey 


survey 


descant 


descant 


torment 


torment 


essay 


essay 


transfer 


transfer 


export 


export 


transport 


transport 



88 ACCENTS. 

The next question is the proportion that the accented 
and unaccented syllables bear to each other. In hasten 
and deter each word consisted of two syllables, of 
which the one was accented and the other was not. 
The proportion, therefore, of the unaccented syllable 
to the accented was as one to one. In tyranny the 
case was different. The unaccented syllables were as 
two to one. What follows is a classification of words 
according to the proportion of their accented and unac* 
cented syllables ; and the divisions are again subdi- 
vided according to the place of the accent. 

I. Words where the unaccented syllables are to the 
accented syllables as one to one : — 

a. The accent on the first syllable, — anchor^ drgue^ 
hasten^ tijrant^ foolish^ lover^ standings worship^ liar^ 
heddle^ &c. 

h. The accent on the second syllable, — harpoon^ 
brigade^ beseech^ deter^ believe^ assume^ invent^ re^, 
refuse^ attain^ &c. 

II. Words where the unaccented syllables are to the 
accented syllables as two to one : — 

a. The accent on the first syllable, — fortify^ merrily^ 
cheerily^ pitiful^ destitute. 

b. The accent on the second syllable, — disable^ re- 
pelling^ endeavor, replenish, &c. 

c. The accent on the third syllable, — cavalier, dis- 
embogue, &c. 

§ 55. Syllables, — Take any word in the English 
language, such as he, man, over, under. If we ex- 
amine this, we shall find that it consists of a certain 
number of sounds, which sounds are more or less per- 
fectly expressed by letters. Thus the word man con- 



QUANTITY. 39 

sists of three sounds ; the first that of a consonant, the 
second that of a vowel, and the third that of a conso- 
nant again. The first of these is represented by the 
letter m, the second by the letter a, the third by the 
letter n. The three sounds taken together form the 
word man^ as it is heard in the spoken language. The 
three letters (m, a, and n) being taken together form 
the word man^ as it is read in the written language. 
In this word a certain number of sounds are taken to- 
gether, and by that means there is constituted what 
the grammarians call a syllable. The word syllable 
is derived from the Greek words syn {with) and Idbein 
(to take). The word man is not only a syllable, but a 
word also ; which shows that words may consist of a 
single syllable. 

Words consisting of single syllables are called mono- 
syllahles^ from the Greek word monos (alone)^ — -man, 
he^ she^ child^ &c. 

Words consisting of two syllable are called dissylla- 
Z>/e5, from the Greek word dis (twice)^ — over ^ under ^ 
ahout^ father^ mother^ &c. 

Words consisting of three syllables are called trisyl- 
lables^ from the Greek word treis (three)^ — disable, 
fatherless^ repining, sorcerer, &c. 

Words consisting of more than three syllables are 
called polysyllables, from the Greek word polys (many), 
— architecture, incapacity, fermentation, &c. 

§ 56. Quantity. — By comparing the sound of the 
letter a in fate with that of the a in fat, we perceive 
two things, a likeness and a difference. The likeness 
consists in both sounds having the character of a ; the 
difference consists in the unequal length of the two 



40 



QUANTITY. 



sounds. In fate the vowel is pronounced slowly, so 
that the time taken up in the utterance is, compara- 
tively speaking, long. In fat the vowel is pronounced 
less slowly, so that the time taken up in the utterance 
is, comparatively speaking, short. Hence the a in fate ^ 
and the vowel sounds like it, are called Long Vowels ; 
and the a in fat^ and the vowel sounds like it, are 
called Short Vowels. 

§ 57. Quantity of Vowels. — The following table ex- 
hibits the quantity of the vowels in English. 



Long Vowels. 


Short Vowels 


a in father 


.... 


. fate 


a in fat 


ee . feet 


i . . pit 


00 . cool 


u . . bull 


aw . bawl 


. . 


. • note 


. . not 


• • • 


u . , but 



The difference between long and short sounds is ex- 
pressed by the marks " and ". The former is placed 
above long, and the latter above short sounds. 



Long Sounds. Short Sounds. 



bate 


bat 


pate 


pat 


hate 


hat 


strait 


sad 


gate 


glad 


white 


whit 


slight 


slit 


sprite 


hit 



Long Sounds. Short Sounds. 
feet fit 



beat 


bit 


peat 


pit 


cool 


bull 


pool 


pull 


pole 


hot 


note 


not 



boat, &;c. boss, &c. 



QUANTITY. 41 

§ 58. Quantity of Syllahles. — In every syllable there 
must be one vowel sound. In no syllable can there be 
more than one vowel sound. These two facts taken 
together show that the vowel is the essential part of the 
syllable. The application of this fact will appear within 
a few sentences. At present it is necessary to inquire 
into the length of syllables. 

The syllable men and the syllable mend are of differ- 
ent lengths. The latter is longer than the former by a 
sound, i. e. by the sound expressed by the letter d. In 
both syllables, however, the vowel is the same, and con- 
sequently of the same quantity. Thus we see that, as 
far as the vowel taken hy itself is concerned, the two 
syllables (men and mend) are of the same length ; 
whilst they are of different lengths if the vowel he 
considered along with the consonants that follow it 
(tz, d). 

Again, the syllable seen and the syllable see are of 
different lengths. The latter is shorter than the former 
by a sound, i. e. by the sound expressed by the letter n. 
In both syllables, however, the vowel is the same, and 
consequently of the same quantity. Thus we see that, 
as far as the vowel taken by itself is concerned, the 
two syllables {seen and see) are of the same quantity ; 
whilst they are of different quantities if the vowel he 
considered along with the consonant that follows it. 

Hence there are two ways of determining the quan- 
tity of a syllable : — 

1st. By measuring it by the quantity of the vowel. — 
In this case short vowels form short syllables, even 
though the number of consonants that follow them be 
great ; and long vowels form long syllables, even though 
few or no consonants follow. 



42 ORTHOGRAPHY. ORTHOEPY. 

2d. By measuring it by the vowels and consonants 
taken together. — In this case short vowels constitute 
long syllables when followed by a number of conso- 
nants, and long vowels constitute short syllables when 
followed by few or no consonants. 

In the English language it is the former measure 
that is adopted ; that is, the quantity of the vowel de- 
termines the quantity of the syllable. 

§ 59. Orthography. — This term is derived from the 
two Greek words, orthos {upright.^ rights correct) and 
graphs (J write). It signifies right writing. Orthog- 
raphy teaches us to represent the words of the spoken 
language by means of letters ; that is, by writing or 
printing. If we first pronounce a word (e. g. man., 
child).) then spell it or write it down, and, lastly, in- 
quire whether the spelling is correct, we ask a question 
belonging to the province of orthography. 

Orthography deals with words as they are spelt, or 
with language as it is written. 

<^ 60. Orthoepy. — Orthoepy is different from orthog- 
raphy. There are a vast number of words of which 
the pronunciation is doubtful, being sounded differently 
by different persons. For instance, the word neither is 
pronounced in three ways : nither^ nayther^ and neeiher. 
To ascertain the proper pronunciation of words is the 
province of orthoepy. The word means right pronun- 
ciation. It teaches us to speak the words of our lan- 
guage accurately. If we first pronounce a word, and 
then ask whether we have pronounced it properly, we 
ask a question belonging to the province of orthoepy. 
Orthoepy deals with words as they are pronounced, or 
with language as it is sounded. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 43 

The term is derived from two Greek words, ortJios 
{upright^ rights correct) and epo {I speak). 

§ 61. In no language do the spelling and the speak- 
ing (that is, the orthography and the orthoepy) abso- 
lutely coincide. The former always represents the lat- 
ter more or less imperfectly. Some of the reasons for 
this in the particular case of our own language, may 
be seen in §§ 49 and 50. In those sections it is shown 
that the number of simple, elementary sounds is greater 
than that of the simple, elementary signs (or letters) 
expressive of them. This deficiency reduces the or- 
thography to the following dilemma. Either certain 
sounds must not be distinguished at all, or else they 
must be distinguished by means more or less incorrect. 
A practical knowledge of some of the main peculiar- 
ities may be collected from the forthcoming observa- 
tions upon the use of particular letters. Previously, 
however, it is necessary to be familiar with the follow- 
ing facts. 

§ 62. The Broad and Small Vowels. — Of the vow- 
els, three are what is called Broad, and three what is 
called Small. The broad vowels are a, o, u; the small 
vowels are e, t, and y (whenever that letter is sounded 
as e or i). 

§ 63. The Affinities of k with s. — It is a fact ob- 
served in most languages, that, under certain circum- 
stances, the sound of k has a tendency to change into 
that of s. There are innumerable instances of sylla- 
bles which in an early stage of language were sounded 
kee and H, being, in a later stage of the same language, 
sounded as see and si. At other times the change is from 
k to tsh. There are innumerable instances of syllables 



44 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

which in an early stage of language were sounded as 
Tcee and ki^ being, in a later stage of the same language, 
sounded as tsTiee and tslii (in the English orthography 
cJiee and clii), 

§ 64. The Affinity between g a7id j. — It is a fact ob- 
served in most languages, that, under certain circum- 
stances, the sound of g (as in got) has a tendency to 
change into some sound allied to that of j or dzh. 
There are innumerable instances of syllables which in 
an early stage of language were sounded gee^ and gi^^ 
being, in a later stage of the same language, sounded 
as dzhee^ and dzhi.^ 

§ 65. Observe in the two preceding sections the 
words " certain circumstances,'^'^ The circumstances 
that especially favor the conversion of the sounds of k 
and g (as in kin and got) into the sounds allied to s 
and dzh are, — 

1. The fact of their being immediately followed by 
the sound of the semivowel y (as in yet), 

2, The fact of their being immediately followed by 
a small vowel. See § 62. 

§ 66. Conventional Methods of expressing the Quanti' 
ty of Vowels. — As these apply to all the vowels equal- 
ly, they may be mentioned in the present place more 
properly than under the head of any particular letter. 

The sounds of the vowel a in fate and fat evidently 
differ from each other in respect to quantity. Upon 
this fact the following questions arise : — 

1. Whether it is necessary to express this difference 
in writing. 

^ As the g in gig^ gibberish^ and gun. 
^ As the j in jig^ and the g in gibbet. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 45 

2. Supposing the necessity of so doing, how it is to 
be done. 

The a in fate is long, the a in fat short. The short- 
est way of expressing this difference is to have two sep- 
arate signs (or letters) ; one for the long sound, the 
other for the short one. This is actually done in the 
Greek language ; where the sounds of the e in hed 
and the o in not are expressed by the signs e and o, 
whilst those of the ee in feet and the o in note are ex- 
pressed by the signs rj and ©, respectively. Such, how- 
ever, is not the method in English. In English we 
have methods less simple, partaking of the nature of 
expedients. 

§ 67. Conventional Methods of expressing the Long- 
ness of Vowels. This is done in three ways : — 

1. By doubling the vowel ; fed^ feed. 

2. By adding a second vowel, and so giving the ap- 
pearance of a diphthong ; red^ redd. 

3. By adding at the end of the word the letter 6, 
which, from the circumstance of its not being sounded, 
is called the e mute ; hdt^ hate. 

§ 68. Conventional Method of expressing the Short' 
ness of a Vowel. — The fact of a vowel being short is 
generally expressed by doubling the consonant that fol- 
lows. In § 47 it is stated that a real doubling of the 
sound of a consonant within one and the same syllable 
is impracticable ; hence such forms as toss and egg are 
to be looked upon as modes of spelling only. This 
mode of spelling gives us a convenient method of ex- 
hibiting to the eye the fact of the vowel that precedes 
the doubled letter being short. The reader is again 
warned that the sound of the consonant is not really 
doubled. 



46 LETTERS. 

§ 69. Tlie Etymological Principle. — The sound of 
the letter c in the word city is a sound that we naturally- 
express by the letter s ; and, if we looked only to the 
expression of the sound, we should spell the word sity. 
This, however, is not the case, and that for the follow- 
ing reason. The word city is a word of Latin origin. 
In that language its form was civitas^ and it was spelt 
with c. To change this c into s conceals, in some de- 
gree, the origin of the word ; for this reason the c is 
retained. 

There are in the English language many words like 
city^ where the natural spelling is with 5, but where c 
is retained for the sake of exhibiting the origin^ history^ 
or derivation of the word. Now the origins, histories, 
and derivations of words are taught by what is called 
Etymology ; so that, when we admit a mode of spelling 
that for the mere representation of the sound is unne- 
cessary, we admit it on what is called the Etymological 
Principle. 

§ 70. Remarks on the Powers of the Letter C. — 1. 
Before a small vowel c is pronounced as s ; ^ city, citi- 
zen, cetaceous, Cyprian, (See §§ 62, 63, 64, 65.) 

2. Before a broad vowel or a consonant c is pro- 
nounced as k ; cat, craft, (See k.) 

3. Followed by the letter h it serves to express the 
sound of tsh ; as church, hirch. 

4. At the end of a word c rarely occurs. (See k.) 

§ 71. Remarks on the Powers of the Letter D. — In 
a large class of words d is used in spelling where the 
real sound is that of t. Words like stuffed, tripped^ 

^ In sin; never as s in those, i. e. as z. 



LETTERS. 47 

plucked^ &c., are all pronounced stuft^ tript^ plucJct^ &c. 
It is very important to be familiar with the orthograph- 
ical substitution of d for t, 

§ 72. Remarks on the Powers of the Letter G. — 1. 
Before a small vowel g is generally pronounced as j ; 
Egypt^ gin^ gibe^ gihhet, con-geal^ gem., &lc. (See 
§ 64.) 

2. Before a broad vowel or a consonant g is pro- 
nounced as in gun, 

3. With the letter h it retains its natural sound, as in 
ghost, 

§ 73. Remarks on Certain Powers of the Letter H. 
— The letter h enters into combination with other let- 
ters, and these combinations of h with other letters are 
used as convenient modes of expressing those simple, 
elementary sounds which have no sign (or letter) equal- 
ly simple to represent them. (See § 50.) 

L The combination of h with ^, or th. This combi- 
nation expresses two sounds : 1. that of the th in thin ; 
2. that of the th in thine, 

2, The combination of h with 5, or sh. This combi- 
nation expresses the sound of the sh in shine. 

3. The combination of h with c, or ch. This combi- 
nation expresses the sound of the ch in chesty and is 
equivalent to tsh, 

§ 74. The Letter I. — For the circumstance of this 
letter representing two distinct sounds, see § 35. 6. 

§ 75. The Letter K. — 1. K rarely comes before a 
broad vowel. In this place we generally find c, 

2, But it is used before a small vowel ; because in 
that position c would run the chance of being sounded 
as s. (See § 70.) 



48 LETTERS. 

3. At the end of words, k is used in preference to 
c. We write sticky lock^ rather than stic^ loc^ or sticc^ 
locc. 

4. K is rarely doubled. We write sticky lock^ rather 
than stikk^ lokk, 

§ 76. The Letter S. — In a very large class of words 
the letter s is used in spelling where the real sound is 
that of the letter z. Words like stags^ halls ^ peas ^ &c., 
are pronounced stagz^ hallz^ peaz. It is very important 
to be familiar with this orthographical substitution of s 
for z. 

§ 77. The whole of the details in the English spelling 
are far too numerous to be exhibited in the present 
pages. Those that have been just noticed are the points 
of the greatest importance. By attending to what fol- 
lows, we shall see that for most of the leading peculiar- 
ities there is a reason. 

§ 78. The reason for c, when followed by a small 
vowel, having the sound of 5, may be collected from 
§§ 62, 63, 64, 65. 

§ 79. The reason for c (§ 70) being rarely found at 
the end of words is as follows : — 

The sound of the letter c is either that of k or of s. 

Which of these sounds it shall represent is determined 
by what follows. (See § 70.) 

If followed by nothing, it has no fixed sound. 

At the end of words it is followed by nothing, 

Whence it has no fixed sound ; and 

Therefore is inconvenient at the end of words. 

^ 80. The reason for d being often sounded like t 
(§ 71) is as follows : — 

The words where it is so sounded are either the past 



LETTERS. 49 

tenses of verbs, or the participles of verbs, — as plucked^ 
tossed^ stepped^ &c. 

Now the letter e in the second syllable of these words 
(and of words like them) is not sounded ; whence the 
sounds of A: (mpluck)^ of 5 (in toss)^ and of j9 (in step)^ 
come in immediate contact with the sound of the letter d. 

But the sound of the letter d is flat, whilst those of A:, 
5, and p are sharp ; so that the combinations kd^ sd^ 
and pd are unpronounceable. Hence d is sounded as t. 
(See § 46.) 

In the older stages of the English language the vowel 
e (or some other vowel equivalent to it) was actually- 
sounded, and in those times d was sounded also. 

Hence d is retained in spelling, although its sound is 
the sound of t. 

§ 81. The reason for g^ when followed by a small 
vowel, having the sound of dzh {or j)^ may be collected 
from § 64. 

§ 82. The reason for h appearing in combination 
with i, 5, and c, in words like thin (and thine) ^ shine^ 
and chesty is as follows : — 

The Greeks had in their language the sounds of both 
the t in tin, and of the th in thin. 

These two souiids they viewed in a proper light ; that 
is, they considered them both as simple, single elemen- 
tary sounds. 

Accordingly, they expressed them by signs, or letters, 
equally simple, single, and elementary. The first they 
denoted by the sign or letter r, the second by the sign or 
letter 6, 

They observed also the difference in sound between 
these two sounds. 

4 ' 



50 LETTERS. 

To this difference of sound they gave names. The 
sound of r (t) was called ps Hon (a word meaning bare). 
The sound of 6 {tli) was called dasy (a word meaning 
rough). 

In the Latin language, however, there was no such 
sound as that of tli in thin. 

And, consequently, there was no simple, single sign 
to represent it. 

Notwithstanding this the Latins knew of the sound, 
and of its being in Greek ; and, at times, when they 
wrote words of Greek extraction, they had occasion to 
represent it. 

They also knew that the sound was called dasy,, in 
opposition to the sound of t (r), which wdiS psilon. 

Now the Latins conceived that the difference between 
a sound called psilon and a sound called dasy consisted 
in the latter being pronounced with a stronger breath, 
or breathing. 

In the Latin language the word aspiration means 
breathing ; so that, according to the views just stated, 
the Greek word dasy w^as translated by the Latin word 
aspiratus (i. e. aspirated or accompanied by a breath- 



In Latin the letter h was not called a sound, but 
merely a breathing (aspiratio). 

This being the case, the addition of the letter h was 
thought a fit way of expressing the difference between 
the sounds of the t in ti7i and the th in thin. 

As the influence of the Latin language was great, 
this view of the nature of the sound of th (and of sounds 
like it) became common. 

The Anglo-Saxons, like the Greeks, had a simple, 



LETTERS. 51 

single sign for the simple, single sound ; viz. J> (for the 
th in thin) and S (for the th in thine). 

But their Norman conquerors had neither sound nor 
sign, and so they succeeded in superseding the Anglo- 
Saxon by the Latin mode of spelling. 

Add to this, that they treated the two sounds of th 
(thin and thine) as one, and spelt them both alike. 

In eifecting the combinations sh and c/i, other causes, 
requiring long explanation, were at work over and above 
the one just given. 

§ 83. Of the letter k it may be said, in general terms, 
that it is never used except where c would be pro- 
nounced as s ; that is, before a small vowel (§ 75). If 
kid were spelt cid^ it would run the chance of being 
pronounced sid. 

Now, the preference of c to ^ is another instance of 
the influence of the Latin language. The letter k was 
wanting in Latin ; and, as such, was eschewed by lan- 
guages whose orthography was influenced by the Latin. 

§ 84. Why k occurs rather than c at the end of words 
(§ 75) may be seen in § 79. 

§ 85. Why k is not doubled (§ 75) may be collected 
from § 83. K is never used where c will serve the 
purpose. Now c followed by k is not liable to be pro- 
nounced as s. Hence, we write stick rather than 
stikk. Why stick is preferable to sticc may be seen in 
§79. 

§ 86. The reason for s being often sounded like z 
(§ 76) is as follows : — 

The words where it is so sounded are either posses- 
sive cases, or plural nominatives ; as stag^s^ stags^ 
slaVs^ slahsy &c. 



52 LETTERS. 

Now in these words (and in words like them) the 
sounds of ^ (in stag) and of h (in slah) come in imme- 
diate contact with the sound of the letter s. 

But the sound of the letter s is sharp, whilst those of 
g and b are flat, so that the combinations gs^ hs are un- 
pronounceable. Hence s is sounded as z. See § 46. 

In the older stages of the English language a vowel 
was interposed between the last l^etter of the word and 
the letter 5, and, when that vowel was sounded, 5 was 
sounded also. 

Hence s is retained in spelling, although its sound is 
the sound of z. 

§ 87. This fact of 5 at the end of words so frequently 
being sounded as z reduces the writer to a strait when- 
ever he has to express the true sound of 5 at the end of 
a word. To write 5 on such an occasion would be to 
use a letter that would probably hh mispronounced ; that 
is, pronounced as z. 

The first expedient he would hit upon would be to 
double the 5, and write ss. But here he would meet 
with the following difficulty. A double consonant ex- 
presses the shortness of the vowel preceding (§ 68) ; 
as toss^ hiss^ egg^ &c. Hence a double s (ss) might be 
misinterpreted. 

In this case he has recourse to the letter c. The let- 
ter c, followed by a small vowel, is sounded as s (§ 70), 
— pence, dice^ ice^ &c. 



PART III. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

OF PROPOSITIONS. 

§ 88. Previous to proceeding further in the study of 
the English language, it is necessary to be familiar with 
the nature and structure of Propositions. These are 
exhibited in the following sentences : Man is mortal^ 

— summer is pleasant^ — winter is cold^ — life is shorty 

— art is long^ — jire is liot^ — iron is useful^ — hread 
is cheap. Each of these assertions forms what is called 
a proposition. It must be remarked that in each of the 
propositions given above the number of words is exactly 
three ; neither more nor less. The next point to ob- 
serve is this, viz. that in each proposition an assertion 
of some sort is made. In the first it is asserted of man 
that he is mortal ; in the second it is asserted of summer 
that it is pleasant ; and so on throughout. If it were 
not for the fact of an assertion being made, there would 
be no proposition. Every proposition is an assertion, 
and every assertion a proposition. 

In each of the propositions above, we may insert the 
word not after is^ and say, man is not mortal^ summer is 
not pleasant^ winter is not cold^ life is not shorty and so 
on. Notwithstanding the insertion of the word 7iot^ the 
assertion still remains ; and, as the assertion remains, 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

the proposition remains along with it. The only differ- 
ence is, that in some cases, as in the words, man is not 
mortal^ the assertion, or proposition, is a false one. 
Now the insertion of the word not has shown, that of 
propositions, or assertions, there are two sorts : 1. Those 
like man is mortal., wherein something is affirmed or 
stated to be ; 2. Those like man is not mortal^ wherein 
something is denied, or stated not to be : i. e. the fact 
of ma7i being mortal is affirmed in the first, whilst the 
fact of man being mortal is denied in the second case. 

Eveiy proposition belongs to one of the classes 
above ; that is, it is either an affirmative proposition or 
a negative proposition. In consequence of this, there 
must, of necessity, be in eveiy proposition something 
expressive of its nature m this respect ; that is, if it 
affirm any thing, there must be some such word as is 
to express that affirmation ; and if it deny any thing, 
there must be some such expression as is not to express 
that denial. To say, man mortal^ summer pleasant., win- 
ter cold., life shorty (fee, is to combine words to no pur- 
pose. They form only parts of propositions. We have 
now seen that in every proposition there is at least 
one element absolutely essential. Besides this there is 
another. 

If we say, is mortal., is pleasant., is cold, is short., is 
long., &c., we combine w^ords to no purpose. They 
form only parts of propositions ; they convey no mean- 
ing ; they require the addition of something else in 
order to complete the sense. If a person uses them, 
we ask the questions, what is mortal 7 what is pleas- 
ant ? what is cold 1 &c. Something or other, that is, 
some object, must be mortal., or pleasant., or cold. 



OF PROPOSITIONS. 55 

What this object is we wish to know. We wish to 
know the object to which the words mortal^ cold^ warm^ 
apply ; we wish to know the subject of the discourse ; 
we wish to know what that object is concerning which 
the assertion that it is cold^ or pleasant^ &c. is made. 
Without some subject concerning which we can affirm 
or deny something, no assertion can be made ; and 
where there is no assertion there is no proposition. We 
have now seen that in every proposition a second ele- 
ment is absolutely essential. 

But, besides this, there is a third. If we say, man is^ 
summer is^ winter is^ life is^ art is^ fire is^ &c. ; or if 
we say, man is not^ summer is not^ winter is not^ life 
is not^ &c., we combine words to no purpose. They 
form only parts, or fragments, or rudiments of prop- 
ositions. We speak, indeed, of man^ summer^ &c., but 
we state nothing concerning them ; we say nothing 
about them. As to whether they are mortal or not 
mortal^ cold or not cold^ we make no assertion. Man, 
summer, &c. are the subjects of our discourse ; but, 
as there is nothing that we affirm or deny concerning 
them (such as the fact of their being mortal, warm, 
&c.), there is no assertion ; and where there is no as- 
sertion, there is no proposition. Thus we have seen 
that in every proposition a third element is absolutely 
necessary. 

Every proposition has three elements or parts. Their 
names are as follows. 

§ 89. The object concerning which we make an as- 
sertion, or the subject of our discourse, is called the 
Subject. Man, summer, winter, &c. are subjects ; and 
we can assert of them that they are mortal, or warm. 



56 



ETYMOLOGY. 



or cold^ &c. ; or else the contrary, i. e. that they are 
not mortal^ not warm^ &;c. In the first case they are 
the subjects of an affirmative, in the next of a neg- 
ative proposition. 

§ 90. The assertion made concerning any object, or 
concerning the subject of our discourse, is called the 
Predicate. Mortal^ warm^ cold^ &c. are predicates ; 
and we can speak of certain things as mortal^ warm^ 
cold^ or the contrary. In the first case they are Pred- 
icates in an affirmative, in the second they are Pred- 
icates in a negative proposition. 

§ 91. That part of a proposition which connects the 
subject and predicate is called the Copula. If the word 
is stand by itself, the proposition is affirmative ; if it be 
accompanied by the word not^ it is negative. 

§ 92. Thus a proposition consists of three parts: (1.) 
the object spoken of, called the Subject ; (2.) that which 
is said of it, called the Predicate ; whilst between them 
comes (3.) the Copula, by which the predicate (e. g. the 
word mortal) is affirmed (is) or denied {is not) of the 
subject, — man is mortal^ or man is not mortal. 

The copula connects the predicate with the subject. 

<^ 93. The following words, amongst many others, 
are capable of forming, by themselves, subjects. 



man 


bow 




wealth 


woman 


arrow 




happiness 


child 


dart 




goodness 


father 


spear 




strength 


mother 


fishing- 


rod 


length 


son 


fisherman 


air 


daughter 


hunter 




fire 





OF 


PROPOSITIONS. 


57 


horse 




shooter 


water 


mule 




lioness 


body 


dog 




book 


soul 


ox 




pen 


atmosphere 


ass 




ink 


firmament 


fowl 




paper 


sun 


bird 




virtue 


sky 


egg 




vice 


essence. 


§ 94. The following words, amon 


gst many others, 


are capable of formin 


Lg, by themselvei 


3, predicates. 


good 




deep 


shooting 


bad 




broad 


shining 


indifferent 


long 


weeping 


big 




short 


groaning 


little 




fierce 


blazing 


great 




happy 


laughing 


small 




virtuous 


thinking 


black 




vicious 


standing 


white 




manly 


conquering 


red 




womanly 


conquered 


green 




childish 


hunted 


hot 




fatherlike 


moved 


cold 




bodily 


beaten 


weak 




atmospheric 


drifted 


strong 




essential 


sifted 


high 




personal 


driven. 


The words in the third column should 


especially be ob- 


served. They all end in -ing^ -en^ or 


■ -ed. 


Besides these, 


all the words mentioned in § 93, that 


is, all that could 


by themselves form 


subjects, can also 


by themselves form 


predicates. The contrary, how- 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

ever, does not take place ; that is, the words in § 94 
that can by themselves form predicates, cannot also 
by themselves form subjects. 

§ 95. We have now seen that there are at least 
three sorts, or classes, of words : (1.) those that, by 
themselves, form either subjects or predicates ; (2.) 
those that, by themselves, form predicates only ; (3.) 
those that, by themselves, form copulas. To these 
must be added a fourth class, consisting of words like 
not^ that convert an affirmative copula into a nega- 
tive one. 

§ 96. The form of proposition that is at once the 
simplest and the most regular is that where the number 
of words and the number of parts coincide ; that is, 
where an affirmative proposition consists of three words 
(neither more nor less), and a negative one of four. 
In this case each part consists of a single word ; e. g. 
the subject of one {man), the predicate of one {mor- 
tal), the affirmative copula of one {is), the negative 
copula of two [is not) = man is mortal, man is not 
mortal. 

It is not, however, the usage of language for proposi- 
tions to take always the simple and regular form exhib- 
ited above. Languages may he so constructed as to ad- 
mit of two of the parts of a proposition being included 
in a single word ; and, in reality, most languages are 
so constructed. 

§ 97. The copula and predicate may be expressed 
by a single word. To say men die, or Jires hum, is to 
make an assertion concerning men and Jires. This as- 
sertion is that they are dying, or that they are not dy- 
ing ; that they are hurning, or that they are not hum- 



OF PROPOSITIONS. 



59 



ing. Instead, however, of saying are dyings or are 
burnings we say die and hum. The predicate in full 
would be burnings and the copula in full would be are 
{oris). Whether, however, ma/z dies^ or whether j^re 
burns., is expressed as well by the words man dies., and 
fire burns., as by the fuller forms, man is dying., fire is 
burning. 

§ 98. We have now seen that there is a fifth class 
of words, namely, those that, by themselves, form a 
copula and predicate at once. The words in this class 
may be said to be of a mixed nature, since they can be 
resolved into the copulas and predicates to which they 
are equivalent. 

§ 99. The following words, amongst others, are ca- 
pable of forming, by themselves, both a predicate and 
a copula at once. 



eat 


teach 


shoot 


drink 


learn 


shine 


speak 


read 


weep 


breathe 


write 


groan 


live 


worship 


blaze 


die 


petrify 


laugh 


fear 


boil 


think 


hope 


ride 


stand 


love 


walk 


conquer 


see 


sigh 


murmur 


hear 


hunt 


astonish 


speak 


fish 


pine 


hunger 


impeach 


beat 


mock 


drive ' 


drift 


stain 


move 


sift. 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

Compare the words in the third column with those in 
the third column of § 94. 

§ 100. Inasmuch as the copula connects the subject 
and predicate, it comes between them ; man is mortal. 
Hence the copula forms the middle part of a proposi- 
tion. Consequently the subject and the predicate form 
the two limits, boundaries, or extremities of a proposi- 
tion. Now the Latin word for a limits boundary^ or 
extremity is terminus. Hence the subject and predi- 
cate of a proposition are called, in logical and gram- 
matical language, the terms of a proposition. The 
subject is one term^ the predicate another. 

§ 101. In logic the subject stands at the beginning, 
the predicate at the end of a proposition. Thus we 
say, Diana is great ; where Diana is the subject, great 
the predicate. 

We may, however, also say, great is Diana ; in 
which case the predicate begins^ whilst the subject ends 
the proposition. 

This shows that the order of the parts of a proposi- 
tion is not always the same in language as it is in logic. 

§ 102. The following list of words indicates a fresh 
point in the structure of terms : wisely^ brightly, just- 
ly, quickly, sloioly, badly, once, twice, thrice, now, then, 
already, to-morrow, oft, of, to, for, by, with, from, in, 
into, over, under, through, at, near, on, about, &;c. Not 
one of these words can form a term by itself ; that is, 
not one of them can be either subject, predicate, or 
copula, so long as it stands alone. We may verify this 
by constructing such combinations as wisely is good, 
from is black, man is wisely, &c. It is only when 
taken along with other words that the words above can 



SUBSTANTIVES. 61 

find place in a proposition. We can say, the sun is shin- 
ing brightly^ the sun in the sky is shining ; since, in 
these cases, the words hrightly and in are subordinate 
to the words shining and sky respectively. 

§ 103. All words that, by themselves, form either 
subjects or predicates, are called Nouns. §§ 93, 94. 

§ 104. Nouns are of two sorts. Substantives and 
Adjectives. The words under § 93 are Substantives. 
Of these words each is the name of some object which 
we can either see, hear, taste, smell, feel, or think 
about. Some of them we can perceive with our out- 
ward senses, such as our eyes or ears (e. g. man^ fowl^ 
hird^ paper). Others we can perceive by the under- 
standing (as lengthy wealthy goodness). This is the 
reason why we are enabled to make them the subjects 
of propositions. 

§ 105. A noun that, by itself, forms either the sub- 
ject or the predicate of a proposition, and is also the 
'name of an object, is called a Noun Substantive, or 
simply a Substantive. 

§ 106. The words under § 94 are Adjectives. Of 
these words each is the name expressive of some qual- 
ity belonging to some object (e. g^ had^ good^ blacky 
white). We can say that certain objects are, or are 
not, endowed with certain qualities ; e. g. we can say 
that man (the name expressing an object) is mortal (the 
name expressing a quality), or endowed with the quality 
of mortality. Concerning such and such objects (or 
subjects) we may assert such and such qualities. This 
is the reason why words like those in § 94 can form by 
themselves the predicates of propositions. 

A noun that by itself forms the predicate of a prop- 



62 



ETYMOLOGY. 



osition, but which cannot by itself form the subject 
of one, is called a Noun Adjective, or simply an Ad- 
jective. 

§ 107. A word that forms by itself the copula of a 
proposition is called a Verb Substantive, as is, are, be, 
was, were. 

§ 108. Words that, by themselves, form both a cop- 
ula and predicate at once are called Verbs Proper, or 
simply Verbs. Such are the words under § 99. 

SUBSTANTIVES. 

§ 109. Gender. — The words hoy and girl, father 
and mother, brother and sister, uncle and aunt, horse 
and mare, are the names of animals, or subjects, of 
different sexes. Boy, father, brother, uncle, horse, 
are names of Males ; girl, mother, sister, aunt, mare, 
are names of Females. In the following list the words 
in the first column are (like the words boy, father, 
horse, &c.) names for male objects ; and those in the 
second column (like girl, mother, mare) names for 
female ones. 



Male. 


Temale. 


Male. 


Female. 


bachelor 


maid 


ram 


ewe 


buck 


doe 


husband 


wife 


bull 


cow 


nephew 


niece 


drake 


duck 


king 


queen 



Here objects of different sexes are expressed by 
wholly different words. 

§ 110. The words of the next list are somewhat in 
a different condition. As before, the names of male 
objects occur in the first, those of female in the second 
column. 



SUBSTANTIVES. 



- GENDER. 



63 



Male. 
Ae-goat 
cocZ:-sparrow 
m«w-servant 



Female. 
she-goat 
Aew-sparrow 
ma^(i-servant. 



Here objects of different sexes are expressed by par^ 
tially different words. The words cock and hen placed 
before the word sparrow form a compound word. And 
so it is with the other words, Ae-goat, sAe-goat, mart" 
servant, mazcZ- servant. The parts in italics are added 
to the original word, in order to denote a difference of 
sex. It must be remarked that each part of the words 
above, even when separated from the other, forms an 
independent word. He^ she^ cock^ hen^ man^ and maid^ 
are independent words ; and so are goat^ sparrow^ and 
servant. Hence it is that the words he- goat ^ &c., are 
compound words, and in the examples just given the 
difference of sex is expressed by Composition. Com- 
position is the combination of whole words. 

§ 111. Difference of Sex expressed hy Derivation, — 
The words in the first column are the names of males, 
those in the second of females. 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


actor 


actress 


peer 


peeress 


baron 


baroness 


poet 


poetess 


count 


countess 


tiger 


tigress 


lion 


lioness 


duke 


duchess 



Here the names of females are formed from those 
of males by the addition of the syllable ess ; as lion-ess 
(a female lion) from lion (a male lion). Now if from 
the word lioness we take away the first two syllables 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

{lion)^ and leave the syllable ess alone, we have no full, 
hide pendent word, but only the part of a word ; since 
ess has no meaning when taken by itself. In this re- 
spect words like lioness differ from words like he-goat^ 
where each of the parts, if separated from the other, 
forms a full and true word (he and goat). The word 
lion-ess is derived from lion ; so that lion-ess and 
words like it are examples of a difference of sex ex- 
pressed by derivation. Derivation is the addition of 
parts of words. 

§ 112. We may now add to any of the words that 
have gone before some such w^ord as good^ had^ hrave^ 
&c. ; in other words, some adjective ; and say a good 
father^ a good mother^ a hrave hoy^ a hrave girl, a 
fierce lion, a fierce lioness, a good actor, a good ac- 
tress. Having done this, we remark that the words 
good, lad, hrave, &c., whether joined to words like 
actor and lion (the names of male objects), or to words 
like actress and lioness (the names of female objects), 
are precisely the same. We use the words good and 
hold in speaking of males, and we use the same words 
in speaking of females. Now, although this is the 
case in English, it is not the case in all languages. In 
many languages the word hold, or good, would take 
one form when it was used to denote males, and 
another form when used to denote females. In the 
Latin language vir means man (the name of a male 
object), mulier means woman (the name of a female 
object), and hon means good. Now, if the Latin 
language were like the English, they would say hon 
vir = good man ; hon mulier = good woman. But, 
as the Latin is unlike the English, they do not say 



SUBSTANTIVES. — GENDER. 65 

SO. The Latin phrase is hon-us vir = good man^ 
hon-a mulier = good woman ; that is, the letter a 
is added if the substantive be the name of a fe- 
male, and the letters us are added if it be the name 
of a male. Again, if the English language were the 
same in this respect as the Latin, we should say, good- 
us man = good man (bonus vir)^ good-a woman {bona 
mulier). This difference between the English and 
Latin must be kept in mind. 

Again : if we wish to speak of more lions or of more 
fathers than one, we say lion-s^ fathers ; that is, we 
add the letter s to the words lion a,nd father (the names 
of male objects). And if we wish to speak of more lion- 
esses or mothers than one, we do just the same ; that is, 
we add the letter s (or es after the sound s) to the words 
lioness and mother (the names of female objects). In 
other words, whether the substantive be the name of a 
male, or the name of a female, the letter added is one 
and the same, viz. the letters. So, also, we say the fa- 
therms son and the mother"^ s son ; the lion''s whelp and the 
lionesses whelp ; that is, whether the word be the name 
of a male or a female, we add s indifferently. All this is 
different in the Latin. In that language dominus means 
a master., and domina means a mistress ; domini means 
of a master., domince^ of a mistress ; domini means 
masters ; do7nince, mistresses. Now the last letters of 
the words domin-ce and domin-i differ ; and they differ 
because one word is the name of a male, and the other 
the name of a female. If the English language were 
the same in this respect as the Latin, we should say 
lion-i for lions., and lion-ce for lioness-es^ which we do 
not. From this we learn that, in respect to the expres- 
5 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

sion of a difference of sex, there is something to be 
found in the Latin language which is wholly or partially- 
wanting in the English. This we may call the Gram- 
matical Expression of the difference of Sex ; or Gen- 
der. 

-^ 113. Masculine^ Feminine^ Neuter, — In words like 
hoy and girl the first word is the name of a male object, 
the second of a female one. In grammar, however, 
instead of saying that the word hoy is a male word, and 
the word girl a female word, we use the terms Mascu- 
line and Feminine ; and we say that hoy is a word of 
the Masculine Gender, and girl a word of the Feminine 
Gender. But besides such objects as hoys and girls^ 
which are either male or female, there are in the world 
a vast number of objects, such as sivords, hows, shoes, 
iron, &c., that are neither male nor female. These 
objects have names, and these names are very often 
neither Masculine nor Feminine. Words of this sort, 
that are neither Masculine nor Feminine, are said to be 
of the Neuter Gender. We may say, then, that there 
are three Genders ; the Masculine, the Feminine, and 
the Neuter. The Masculine denotes males ; the Fem- 
inine, females ; and the Neuter, things, or objects that 
are neither male nor female. We can now apply this 
to the words mentioned above. 

§ 114. In the English Substantives and Adjectives, 
there is no distinction of Gender. In Anglo-Saxon, 
however, this distinction existed. 

§ 115. Nv7nher. — In the following phrases we speak 
of a single object ; that is, of one object and of no more 
than one : a father, my father, this father, one father ; 
a son, my son, this son, one son ; a horse, this horse, 



SUBSTANTIVES. NUMBER. 67 

that horse^ my horse^ one horse. In this case the words 
father^ son^ and horse appear in a simple form, without 
the addition of any letter or syllable whatsoever. This 
is not the case with the words in the list forthcoming : 
these fathers^ these son-s^ these hors-es^ &c. Here we 
speak of more objects than one ; that is, of two (or more) 
fathers^ of two (or more) sons^ and of two (or more) 
horses. In this case the letter s is added to the words 
father,, son,, and horse respectively. Now in the Latin 
language the word singularis means single ; so that the 
forms without 5, such as father,, son,, and horse,, denoting 
respectively one father,, one son,, one horse,, and no more, 
are called Singular forms, and are said to be in the 
Singular Number. On the other hand, in the Latin 
language the words plus and pluralis mean more or 
many ; so that the form with 5, like fathers,, son-s,, and 
hors-es,, denoting respectively two (or more) fathers,, two 
(or more) sons,, two (or more) horses,, are called Plural 
forms, or are said to be in the Plural Number. In the 
English language we may therefore say that there are 
two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The Singu^ 
lar speaks of one [a father),, and the Plural speaks of 
more than one [fathers,, hooks), 

§ 116. The Plural Number is formed from the Sin- 
gular, and not the Singular from the Plural. The words 
horses,, fathers,, &c. are formed from horse Sind father , 
and not vice versa, 

<5> 117. In most words in English, the plural number 
is, in the spoken language, formed from the singular by 
the addition of the sound of the s in seal,, of the % in 
%eal^ or of the syllable e% ; as stag-z^ stacks^ stag-ez 
(from stage). 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 118. The plural number is expressed in the written 
language by the letter 5, or by the syllable es. The 
letter z and the syllable ez^ although sounded, are never 
written. This, however, is a matter of orthography, 
not of etymology. See § 46 and § 47, stags, stacks^ 
stag-es. 

<§ 119. Which of the three additions (2, 5, or ez) be 
the one adopted, depends upon the nature of the last 
sound of the singular. See §§ 46, 47. 

§ 120. If the last sound of the singular be that of 
the letter 5, or %, or of the sJi in shine, or of the z in 
azure, the addition is that of the sound of the syllable 
ez (spelt es) ; as loss-ez, kiss-ez, ilaz-ez, haz-ez, hlush- 
ez, lash-ez, spelt loss-es, kiss-es, hlaz-es, haz-es, hlush-es^ 
lash-es. 

Ohseriie. — Words ending in the sound of the ch in 
chest, and the j in jest, really end in sh and zh (§ 41), 
and form their plurals accordingly ; as church (churtsh), 
church-ez ; crutch (crutsh), crutch-ez ; witch {witsh), 
witch-ez ; judge (judzh), judg-ez ; large {hardzh), 
harg-ez ; spelt church-es, crutch-es, witch-es, judg-es, 
harg-es. 

Observe. — As the sound of the letter x is equivalent 
to that of ks (or cks, or cs), words ending in that letter 
really end in s, and form their plurals accordingly ; as 
box (hocks), hox-ez [hocks-ez) *,fox [focks),foX'ez {focks- 
ez) ; spelt hox-es,fox-es, &c. 

§ 121. If the last sound of the singular be that of a 
sharp mute (not 5 or sh), the sound added to it in order 
to form the plural is that of the letter 5 in seal ; as top^ 
tops ; muff, muffs ; cat, cats ; moth, moths ; stacks 
stacks, (See § 46.) 



SUBSTANTIVES. NUMBER. 69 

* § 122. If the last sound of the singular be that of a 
flat mute (not % or z^), a liquid, or a vowel, the sound 
added to it in order to form the plural is that of the % in 
%eal ; as slah^ slab-z ; slave^ slav-z ; lad lad-z ; dog^ 
dog'Z ; liill^ hill-z ; drum^ drum-z ; hen^ hen-z ; har^ 
har-z ; day^ day-z ; jiea^ flea-z ; how^ how-z ; spelt 
slab-s^ slaves^ lad-s^ dog-s^ liill-s^ drum-s^ hen-s^ har-s^ 
day-s^ fiea-s^ lows, 

§ 123. Having gone through the details given above, 
we are now enabled to give the rule for the formation 
of the plural in more general language. We can now 
say that the greater part of the English plurals are 
formed ly the addition of the sound of s, modified ac- 
cording to the termination of the singular, 

§ 124. Plural of Certain Words in f. — The follow- 
ing words end in the sound of the sharp mutey*: loaf 
half wife^ life^ calf leaf Now, according to § 121, 
their plurals should be formed by the addition of the 
sound of 5 in seal^ and so be loafs^ halfs^ wifes^ lifes^ 
calfs^ leafs (pronounced loafce^ halfce, ivifce^ lifce^ 
calfce^ leafce). This, however, is not the case. Their 
plurals are formed by the addition of the sound of z in 
zeal^ and are loaves^ halves^ wives^ lilies^ calves^ leaves 
(pronounced loavz^ halvz^ wivz^ livz^ calvz^ leavz) ; the 
sound of the f being changed into that of v. Respect- 
ing these words we must observe : — 

1. That the vowel before jf is long. Words like muff^ 
where the vowel is short, form their plurals by means 
of the sound of the s in seal ; as muff^ muff-s (pronounced 
muffce), 

2, That they are all of Anglo-Saxon origin. In the 
words mischief chief handkerchief grief relief the 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

plural is formed as in muff ; that is, by the addition of 
the sound of 5 ; as mischiefs^ chiefs^ &c. 

Putting these two facts together, we can use more 
general language, and say that, 

When a word ends in the sound of /, preceded 
by a long vowel, and is of Anglo-Saxon origin, the 
plural is formed by the addition of the sound of the 
z in zeal. 

To this rule there are two exceptions : — 

1. Dwarf ; a word of Anglo-Saxon origin, but which 
forms its plural by means of the sound of 5, — dwarfs 
(pronounced dwarf ce). 

2. Beef ; a word not of Anglo-Saxon origin, but 
which forms its plural by means of the sound of %, — 
heeves (pronounced heevz). 

If we ask the reason of this peculiarity in the for- 
mation of the plurals of these words in f we shall find 
reason to believe that it lies with the singular rather 
than the plural forms. In Anglo-Saxon, f at the end 
of a word was sounded as v ; and it is highly probable 
that the original singulars were sounded loav^ Jialvj 
wive^ calv^ leav. 

§ 125. Plural forms in ce. — 1. According to § 122, 
the word penny should form its plural by means of the 
sound of the z in zeal. It does so, and, consequently, 
there is the plural form pennies (penniz) ; but, besides 
this, there is the form pence. 

Now there are two plurals to the word penny ^ be- 
cause there are two meanings. Six pennies means six 
separate penny-pieces. Six pence (or sixpence) means a 
single coin equivalent to six penny -pieces. This last 
sense is collective rather than plural. 



SUBSTANTIVES. NUMBER. 71 

The plural j[)ence has a further peculiarity. Accord- 
ing to § 122, it ought to end in the sound of % in %eal^ 
which it does not ; it ends in the sound of s in seal. 
This serves to distinguish it from the plural of pen^ 
which is penz (spelt pens), 

2, Dice, — This word ends in the sound of s in seal^ 
when, according to § 122, it should end in the sound 
of z in zeal. This serves to distinguish dice for play 
from dies (diez) for coining. 

§ 126. Equivocal Forms from Singulars in s. — 
The number of the following words has always been 
a matter of discussion amongst grammarians : — 

1. Alms, — Some say, these alms are useful; in 
which case the word alms is plural. Others say, this 
alms is useful ; in which case the word alms is singu- 
lar. Now in the word alms the s is no sign of the 
plural number, but part of the original singular, like 
the s in goose or loss. The Anglo-Saxon form was 
cdmesse. Notwithstanding this, we cannot say alms-es 
in the same way that we can say loss-es. Hence the 
word alms is, in respect to its original form, singular ; 
in respect to its meaning, either singular or plural. 

2. Riches, — Most writers say, riches are useful ; in 
which case the word riches is plural. Still there are a 
few who say, riches is useful ; in which case the word 
riches is singular. Now in the word riches the s is no 
sign of the plural number, since there is no such suh- 
stantive as rich ; on the contrary, it is part of the origi- 
nal singular, like the s in distress. The form in the 
original French, from which language it was derived, 
is richesse. Notwithstanding this, we cannot say rich- 
ess-es in the same way that we can say distress-es. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

Hence the word riches is, in respect to its original 
form, singular ; in respect to its meaning, either singu- 
lar or plural ; most frequently the latter. 

3. News, — Some say, this news is good ; in which 
case the word news is singular. More rarely we find 
the expression, these news are good ; in which case the 
word news is plural. Now in the word 7iews the s (un- 
like the s in ahis and riches) is no part of the original 
singular, but the sign of the plural, like the s in trees. 
Notwithstanding this, we cannot substract the 5, and say 
new, in the same way that we ca7i form tree from trees. 
Hence the word neivs is, in respect to its original form, 
plural ; in respect to its meaning, either singular or 
plural ; most frequently the former. 

4. Means. — Some say, these means are useful : in 
which case the words means is plural. Others say, this 
means is useful ; in which case the word means is sin- 
gular. Now in the word means the s (unlike the s in 
alms and riches., but like the s in news) is no part of 
the original singular, but the sign of the plural, like 
the s in trees. The form in the original French, from 
which language the word is derived, is moyen, singular ; 
moyens, plural. If we subtract from the word means 
the letter 5, we say mean. Now, as a singular form 
of the word means., with the sense it has in the phrase 
ways and means, there is, in the current English, no 
such word as mean, any more than there is such a word 
as new from news. But, in a different sense, there is 
the singular form mean ; as in the phrase the golden 
mean, meaning middle course. Hence the word means 
is, in respect to its form, plural ; in respect to its mean- 
ing, either singular or plural. 



SUBSTANTIVES. NUMBER. 73 

5. Pains, — Some say, these pains are well taken ; 
in which case the word pains is plural. Others say, 
this pains is well taken ; in which case the word pains 
is singular. The form in the original French, from 
which language the word is derived, is peine. The 
reasoning that has been applied to the word means is 
closely applicable to the word pains. 

6. The same also applies to the word amends. The 
form in French is amende^ without the s. 

7. Mathematics.^ Physics^ Metaphysics., Optics^ Pol- 
itics., Ethics., Pneumatics., Hydraulics., Hydrostatics., 
Mechanics., Dynamics., Statics. — All these words are 
plural in form ; in sense they are either singular or 
plural. 

§ 127. The words just noticed may be called Equiv- 
ocal Forms. In words like alms and riches the original 
s of the singular is confounded with the 5, the sign of 
the plural. In the remainder the 5, the sign of the 
plural, is taken for a part of the original singular. This 
confusion prevents the words in point from having either 
true singulars, like new., mean., pain ; or true plurals, 
like riches-es., alms-es. 

If the reason of this confusion be inquired into, it 
will be found, — 

1. That all the words in question are of foreign 
origin. 

2. That in sense they are partly singular and partly 
plural. Alms means either a number of separate do- 
nations taken severally^ or a number of separate do- 
nations dealt with as a single act of charity. In the 
first case the plural, in the second the singular sense 
predominates. 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 128. Plurals not ending in s. — Besides the usual 
plural forms in s {fathers^ son-s)^ there are four other 
methods in English of expressing a number of objects. 

1. By the change of vowel. 

2. By the addition of en or n. 

3. By the addition of er or r. 

4. By a combination of two of the preceding methods. 
§ 129. Plurals formed hy a Change of Vowel, — 

This class consists in the present English of the follow- 
ing words : — 

1. Man^ singular ; men^ plural. The vowel a changed 
to the vowel e, 

2. jPoo2^, singular ; /ee^, plural. The vow^el oo (sound- 
ed as the ou in could) changed to the vowel ee, 

3. 4. Toothy singular ; teeth^ plural : goose^ singular ; 
geese^ plural. The vowel oo (as in food) changed to 
ee (as in feet), 

5. 6. Mouse,, louse,, singular; mice,, lice,, plural. The 
diphthong ou changed to the vowel i (as in night). The 
combination ce is used instead of se, for the same rea- 
son as in pence and dice; i. e. lest, if written mise, 
lise^ the words should be pronounced mize,, lize. 

Kye,, used in Scotland for cows, is of the same class. 
Anglo-Saxon, cu cow, c^, cows. 

§ 130. Plurals formed hy the Addition of en or n. 
— In the present English the word oxen is the only 
specimen of this form in current use. In the older 
stages of our language the number of plurals in en was 
much greater than at present. 

hos-en = hose or stockings 

shoo-n = shoe-s 

ey-en = eye-s 



SUBSTANTIVES. NUMBER. 75 

bischop-en = bishop-s 

eldr-en = elder-s 

arw-en == arrow-s 

scher-en = shire-s 

doghtr-en = daugbter-s 

sustr-en = sister-s 

uncl-en = uncle-s 

tre-en = tree-s 

souldr-en = soldier-s 
§ 131. Plurals formed hy the Addition of ex. — In 
tbe Anglo-Saxon the four following plurals are found : 
cealfru = calves^ lamb-ru = lambs^ egg-ru = eggs^ 
cild-ru^ = children. The peculiarity of these is, that 
they are formed in r. They are all words of the 
neuter gender. In certain of the provinces of Eng- 
land the plural form child-er still exists. This form, 
although absent in the current English, is necessary to 
be observed, since it is the basis of the word child-r-en. 
The origin of this r is not satisfactorily determined. 

§ 132. Plurals formed hy a Comhination^ Sfc, — 
Three words occur in this class. 

1. Kine = cows ; a plural formed from a plural by 
the addition of n ; as cow^ kye^ kyne {kine). A combi- 
nation of methods 1 and 2. (See § 128.) 

2. Children ; a plural formed from a plural by the 
addition of en; as child., child-er., child-er-en = chil- 
dren. A combination of methods 3 and 2. 

3. Brethren ; a plural formed from a plural by the 
addition of en ; as brother., hrethre ?, hrethr-en = 
brethren. A combination of methods 1 and 3. 

§ 133. Current and Obsolete Processes. — The pres- 
ent is a proper time for exhibiting the difference be- 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

tween the current and the obsolete processes of a lan- 
guage. 

By addmg the sound of the s in seal to the the word 
father, we change it into fathers. Hence the addition 
of the sound in question is the process by which the 
word father is changed into fathers. Such is the na- 
ture of a process in language. The process by which 
ox is changed into ox-e7i is the addition of the sylla- 
ble en. The words father and ox are said to be af- 
fected by a certain process ; and, as they are affected, 
the language of which they form a part is affected also. 

In all languages there are two sorts of processes, those 
that are in operation at a certain period, and those that 
have ceased to operate. 

In illustration of this, let us suppose that, from the 
Latin, Greek, French, or some other language, a new 
word is introduced into the English ; and that this word 
is a substantive of the singular number. Suppose the 
word was teck, and that it meant a sort of dwelling- 
house. In the course of time it would be necessary to 
use this word in the plural ; and the question would 
arise as to the manner in which that number should be 
formed. 

Now there are three simple forms of the plural in 
English, and consequently three processes by which a 
singular may be converted into a plural : — 

1. The addition of the sound of 5, 2, or ez {es), 

2. The change of vowel. 

3. The addition of n. 

Notwithstanding this, it is very certain that the plural 
of a new word would not be formed in en (like oxen)^ 
nor yet by a change of vowel (like feet) ; but by addi- 



SUBSTANTIVES. — CASE. 77 

tion of the sound of 5, z, or e% (like stacks^ dog-z^ loss- 
ez, spelt stacks^ dogs, loss-es). 

This shows that the processes by which ox is changed 
into ox-en, foot into feet, and child into child-ren, are no 
longer in operation ; in other words, that they are ohso- 
lete ; whilst the process that changes father into fath- 
ers is still in operation ; in other words, current. 

With each and all of the forms in grammar, as they 
successively present themselves, we should ask whether 
they were brought about by a current process, or by an 
obsolete one. 

§ 134. Case, — It is necessary to understand the 
meaning of the following words, — Case, Nominative, 
Accusative, Dative, Objective, and Possessive. This 
we can do by the examination of certain propositions. 
(§ 89, &/C.) He is striking him. — These words form 
a proposition, of which he is the subject, is the copula, 
and striking him the predicate. Now he and him, al- 
though the same parts of speech, of the same gender, 
and of the same number, appear in different forms. In 
one there is the presence, in the other the absence, 
of the letter m (he, hi-m). The reason of this is that 
the two words are in different cases. The same takes 
place with they are striking them. We cannot say, him 
is striking he, nor yet, them is striking they. We can- 
not even say, him is striking, them are striking. If we 
examine further, we shall find that he and they can, by 
themselves, form terms ; since we can say, he is striking 
(where he by itself is the subject) ; and since we can 
also say, this is he, and these are they (where he and 
they by themselves constitute predicates). On the other 
hand, him and them can only form parts of terms ; as, 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

lie is sticking them, they are striking him. Such is the 
difference in meaning between the words he and him, 

§ 135. When words differ from each other in mean- 
ing in the way that he and Am, they and them,, differ, it 
is the habit, more or less, of languages to express this 
difference of meaning by a difference of form. This 
is done in the words just quoted ; where he and they 
take one form, and him and them another. Differences 
of this sort, expressed by difference of form, are said 
to constitute Cases. The word he is in one case, the 
word him in another case. So it is also with they and 
them. 

§ 136. A noun is said to be in the Nominative Case 
when it by itself constitutes a term. The words he 
diudi father are Nominative Cases ; since we can say, he 
is speaking,, father is coming,, this is he,, this is father, 

§ 137. A noun is said to be in the Accusative Case 
when, taken along with a verb, the verb and it together 
form a logical term. The sun (subject) is (copula) 
warming him (predicate). Here the words warming 
him form, by themselves, a term. 

§ 138. He is going London, — In this proposition he 
is the subject, is the copula, going London the predicate. 
Now the words going London give no sense, that is, the 
word London is not in the same relation to going as 
him in the sentence just quoted was to warming. Add, 
however, the word to and the sense is good = He is 
going to London, Now the word London in this sen- 
tence, unlike the words he and him, has no distinguish- 
ing pecuUarity of form. If, instead of London, it was 
London-e or London-o, it would form a case, and that 
case would be called a Dative. 



SUBSTANTIVES. — CASE. 79 

§ 139. They fought with a sword, — Here there is 
the substantive sword accompanied by the word with. 
In many languages, however, the word with would be 
omitted, and the word sword change its form. The 
Anglo-Saxon for they fought with the sword^ was feoh- 
ton sweord-e^ where no such word as with appeared in 
the sentence, but where the additional syllable e served 
instead. This constituted in Anglo-Saxon a particular 
case. 

§ 140. This is a picture of John, — Here there is 
the substantive John accompanied by the word of. In 
many languages, however, the word of (or its equiva- 
lent) would be omitted, and the word John would 
change its form. This would constitute a fresh case. 
The meaning of the sentence, this is a picture of John ^ 
is, this is a picture of which John is the subject (or 
original). 

§ 141. This is John'^s picture, — Here the word 
John'^s is unaccompanied by any word of the nature of 
to^ with,, or of. Instead of an accompaniment, it has 
undergone a change in form. The word John has 
been changed into John'^s. Here a true case is con- 
stituted. 

Now the meaning of the sentence, this is John^s pic- 
ture^ is, this is a picture in the possession of John. 
The idea of possession is expressed by the addition 
of the sound of the letter s {John^ John'^s), Hence 
John'^s is an example of what is called the Possessive 
Case. 

§ 142. The words to^ with,, of and several other 
words like them, are called Prepositions. 

§ 143. .The cases in the present English are three : — 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. Nominative : father^ he. 

2. Objective : hi7n. 

3. Possessive : Ms, father^s. 

The Objective Case in English is equivalent to the 
Accusative of other languages ; and it is also the case 
that follows prepositions ; as, he struck him ; he gave 
the hook to him ; he took the book from him. 

The Objective Case and the preposition to are equiv- 
alent to the Dative Case of other languages. 

§ 144. The suhstantives in English have only two 
out of the three cases ; as there is no difference in 
form between a word with the sense of a nominative 
and a word with the sense of an objective case. We 
say the father teaches the son, or the son teaches the 
father. Hence the words son and father are either 
objective or nominative, as the case may be. 

§ 145. The Possessive Case singular is formed in 
the spoken language from the nominative (or objective) 
case, in the same way as the nominative plural is 
formed from the singular. (See § 117, &c.) 

Such is the rule, to which there is only one class of 
exceptions. Words in f (§ 124) form their possessive 
case in the sound of 5 in seal ; as loafs, wife'^s, calf's, 
leaf's, &c. ; sounded loafce, wifce, calfce, leafce, and 
not loavz, wivz, calvz, leavz. We say, the wives are 
good-tempered, but the wife^s temper is good ; the 
loaves are well haked, but the loafs baking is good ; 
the calves are well fed, but the calfs feeding is good ; 
the leaves are changing color, but the leafs color is 
changing. 

§ 146. The possessive case singular is distinguished, 
in the language as it is written, from the nominative (or 



SUBSTANTIVES. — CASE. 81 

objective) case plural by the insertion of an apostro- 
phe (' ) between the last letter of the original word and the 
letter 5 ; as father^ father'^ s, fathers ; the father'' s son ; 
the fathers are speaking. This, however, is merely a 
point of spelling. It does not affect the spoken language. 

Although at the present time identical, the posses- 
sive case singular and the nominative case plural were 
originally distinct. The first ended in -es, as endes^ 
endh ; the second in as, as end-as^ ends. The ejec- 
tion of the vowels {a and e) reduces the two words to 
the same form. 

§ 147. The possessive case plural, when formed 
at all, is formed, in the spoken language, from the 
nominative case of the same number, in the same 
way as the possessive case singular is formed ; that 
is, by the addition of the sound of s ; as children^ 
children's ; oxen^ oxen's ; the children's bread ; the 
oxen's horns, 

§ 148. It is rare, however, that in the spoken lan- 
guage the possessive case plural differs at all from the 
nominative case plural. The reason of this may be 
seen in § 47. As the nominative plural generally ends 
in 5, and as the possessive is also formed in s, there 
would be too many sounds of s accumulated in a single 
word ; e. g. the possessive plural of trees would be 
treeses^ and the possessive plural o^ fox would be fox- 
es-es ; as the foxes es tails. }ience, in the spoken lan- 
guage, the nominative and possessive cases plural are 
alike whenever the former ends in the sound of s, 

§ 149. In the written language the difference be- 
tween the nominative (or objective) case plural and the 
possessive case plural is expressed by the addition of 
6 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

an apostrophe (') after the letter s ; the trees are in 
leaf but the trees* leaves are coming out ; the ships are 
in full sail^ but the ships'* sails are spread. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 150. In the present EngUsh the Adjectives pre- 
serve the same form throughout both numbers and in 
all genders. Consequently they are destitute of case ; 
the objective, the nominative^ and the possessive senses 
being expressed alike. — A good 7nan^ a good woman^ 
a good sword ; the good men^ the good women^ the good 
swords ; a good man''s son^ u good woman'' s son^ a good 
sword'^s edge. 

§ 151. The only way in which adjectives change 
their form is in respect to the Degrees of Comparison. 

§ 152. The adjective in its simple form is called the 
Positive Adjective. From the adjective in its Positive 
form are formed, 1. the Comparative ; 2. the Superla- 
tive Degree. 

§ 153. The sign of the Comparative Degree is equiv- 
alent in meaning to the word more. In the word 
hright-er the syllable er is the sign of the Compara- 
tive Degree. The word hright-er is equivalent in mean- 
ing to more bright. 

§ 154. The sign of the Superlative Degree is equiv- 
alent in meaning to the word most. In the word bright- 
est the syllable est is the sign of the Superlative De- 
gree. Also the word bright-est is equivalent in mean- 
ing to the words most bright. 

§ 155. The comparative degree is formed from the 
positive by the addition of the syllable er ; as coZc?, 
cold-er ; rich^ rich-er ; dry^ dry-er ; low^ low-er. This 



ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON, 83 

is the manner in which the greater part of the English 
comparatives are formed. 

§ 156. The following positives have no comparative, 
and also no superlative forms : good^ had^ evil^ ill. 
There are in the current English no such words as 
good-er^ hadd-er^ evill-er^ ill-er ; or good-est^ hadd-est^ 
evill-est^ ill-est, 

§ 157. The following comparatives (and superlatives) 
have no positive forms : worse ^ worst ; better^ best. 
There are in the current English no such words as 
wor and bett 

§ 158. The comparative form elder, — The positive 
form old has two comparatives: (1.) the word old-er ; 
(2.) the word eld-er, A knowledge of the following 
facts will account for the form elder. In Anglo-Saxon 
there were several words which, beside the addition of 
the syllable re in the comparative degree, also changed 
the vowel of the positive. 

A. S. Positive. A. S. Comparative. A. S. Superlative. English. 

Lang Leng-re Leng-est Long 

Strang Streng-re Streng-est Strong 

Geong Gyng-re Gyng-est Young 

Sceort Scyrt-re Scyrt-est Short 

He ah Hy-rre Hyh-st High 

Eald Yld-re Yld-est Old 

The Anglo-Saxon form yld-re explains the English 
form elder. The word elder is often used as a sub- 
stantive. We say, the elders of the people, 

§ 159. Latter, — The word late has two forms for 
the comparative degree : (1.) later ^^ (2.) latter. In the 
first the vowel is the a in fate ; in the second the a 
in fat. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 160. More. — More is etymologically connected 
with much. As late as the reign of Queen EUzabeth 
we find the positive form moe. From this more (mo-er) 
may be regularly derived. 

§ 161. Nether, — The positive form nith is obsolete. 
It means low. From this the comparative form neth-er 
(in Anglo-Saxon ni^ere) is regularly derived. In 
phrases like the Netherlands,, the nether regions^ the 
word nether means low,, or lower, 

§ 162. Better is a regular comparative form, defec- 
tive in the positive. No absolute positive degree is 
found in any of the allied languages, and in none of. 
the allied languages is there found any comparative 
of good, , 

§ 163. Near, — This word, although in meaning an 
adjective of the positive degree, is in respect to its 
form a comparative. The r is no part of the origi- 
nal word. The Anglo-Saxon form is neah for the pos- 
itive ; nea-rre^ nea-r, and ny-r for the comparative. 
Hence, — 

§ 164. Nearer is, in respect to its form, a double 
comparative, nea-r-er, 

§ 165. Further, — This means more in fronts or 
more forward. It is derived from the word fore^ as 
found in foremost. Besides the change of the vowel 
from to w {fore,, fur-th-er)^ there is the addition of 
the sound of th. This sound was inserted in an early 
stage of language. It occurs in the old High Ger- 
man forms vor-d-aro^ for-d-oro^ vor-d-ero, for-d-ar^ 
fur-d-ir^ and in the Anglo-Saxon /orS, and English 
forth, 

§ 166. Farther, — This means more far^ or more 



ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. 85 

distant. It is derived from the word far^ which ap- 
pears in the following different forms : fairra^ Moeso- 
Gothic ; verro^ ver, fer^ Old High German ; feor^ An- 
glo-Saxon ; Jiarri^ Old Norse. The proper compar- 
ative is formed without the tli; as verr-or^ verr-oro^ 
Old High German. In the English word far-th-er the 
til is inserted, either because far-er is inharmonious, or 
from the word being confounded with far-th-er. 

§ 167. Former, — A comparative from the Anglo- 
Saxon word forma ^ a word already in the superlative. 
For the insertion of the m (for-m-er) see § 179. 

§ 168. The forms less and worse are too difficult to 
be explained here. We remark only that less is etymo- 
logically connected with little. 

<5> 169. The superlative degree may be formed from 
the positive by the addition of the syllable est ; as 
cold^ cold-est ; rich^ rich-est ; dry^ dry-est ; low^ low- 
est. This is the manner in which the greater part of 
the English superlatives are formed. 

§ 170. Best^ last. — By comparing these with the 
words hett-er and lat-er (or latt-er)^ we discover that 
the sound of t has been lost. The full forms would be 
hett-est and lat-est. 

§ 171. The forms least and worst are too difficult to 
be explained here. 

§ 172. First. — A superlative from the original word 
fore^ sup. first. 

§ 173. Most. — See § 160. 

§ 174. Nearest. — See § 163. 

^ 175. Next. — The superlative of nigh^ contracted 
from nighest. The Anglo-Saxon forms were neah^ 
nyh-st^ neh-st^ nyh-ste. In Anglo-Saxon the letter A was 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

pronounced strongly, and sounded like g or k. This fact 
is still shown in the spelling ; as nigh. In the word 
next this sound is preserved, slightly changed into that 
of k ; next = nek-st. 

§ 176. Furthest. — See § 165. 

§ 177. Farthest. — See § 166. 

§ 178. Eldest. — See § 158. 

§ 179. Upmost^ &c. — Of superlatives in most two 
views may be taken. 

First,^ that they are compound words formed from 
simple ones by the addition of the superlative term 
most^ as up-most^ in-most^ out-most^ hind-most^ mid' 
most. 

Second, 2 that they are simple words formed by the 
addition of the superlative termination st to forms al- 
ready superlative. 

The Anglo-Saxon language presents us with the fol- 
lowing forms : — 

Anglo-Saxon. English, 

innema (inn-ema) inmost (in-m-ost) 

utema (ut-ema) outmost (out-m-ost) 

forma (for-ma) foremost (fore-m-ost) 

ufema (uf-ema) upmost (up-m-ost) 

hindema (hind-ema) hindmost (hind-m-ost) 

midema (mid-ema) midmost (mid-m-ost). 

Besides these, there are in the other allied languages 
words like fruma =Jirst (Moeso- Gothic), aftuma^= last 
(MoBso-Gothic), miduma= middle (Moeso-Gothic). 

Now the words in question show at once, that, as far 

1 Rask. 2 Grimm. 



PRONOUNS. 87 

as they are concerned, the m that appears in the last 
syllable of each has nothing to do with the word most. 

From the words in question there was formed, in 
Anglo-Saxon, a regular superlative form in the usual 
manner ; viz. by the addition of st ; as cefte-m-est^ fyr- 
m-est^ yfe-m-est^ ute-m-est^ inne-m-est. 

According to this view, the different parts of the syl- 
lable most (in words like upmost) come from different 
quarters. The m is the m in the Anglo-Saxon words 
innema^ &c. ; whilst the st is the common sign of the 
superlative. Hence, in separating such words as mid- 
most into its component parts, we should write 



mid-m-ost 


not 


mid-most 


ut-m-ost 


— 


ut-most 


up-m-ost 


.^ 


up-most 


fore-m-ost 


— 


fore-m-ost 


in-m-ost 


— 


in-most 


hind-m-ost 


— 


hind-most 


out-m-ost 


— 


out-most 



§ 180. Furthermost^ uttermost^ uppermost^ outermost^ 
innermost^ hindermost^ nethermost^ aftermost. — In these 
words there is an undoubted addition of most^ and an 
excess of inflection, a superlative form being added to a 
word in the comparative degree. 

PRONOUNS. 

§ 181. Sections 104, 105 should now be carefully read 
over, and especial attention directed to the words " name 
of an ohject.'^'^ Section 93 should also be read. 

A substantive is the name of some object ; as horse^ 
man^ father^ son^ goodness^ animal. 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

As the name of some object, a substantive is capable 
of forming both the subject and predicate of proposi- 
tions. 

But, besides the names of objects, there are other 
words capable of forming both the subjects and predi- 
cates of propositions. 

These form a third class of nouns, and are called 
Pronouns. 

I, tliou^ we^ ye^ Ae, she^ tliey^ this^ tliat^ these^ those^ 
&;c., are Pronouns. 

None of these are the names of objects. 

The word 7, taken by itself, is not the name of one 
object more than another. It varies in meaning with 
the person speaking. When William says J, it means 
William. When Thomas says 7, it means Thomas, It 
denotes the speaker, whoever he may be ; but it is not 
the fixed name of any speaker whatever. 

The word thou^ taken by itself, is not the name of one 
object more than another. It varies in meaning with 
the person spoken to. When thou is said to William, it 
means William. When thou is said to Thomas., it means 
Thomas. It denotes the person spoken to, whoever he 
may be ; but it is not the fixed name of any person 
spoken to in particular. 

The word z^e, taken by itself, is not the name of any 
persons in particular. It denotes the parties who are 
speaking ; and when a different party speaks, it denotes 
different persons. 

The same principle applies to the word ye. 

The word ^e, taken by itself, is not the name of one 
object more than another. It varies in meaning accord- 
ing to the person spoken of. When he is said in speak- 



PRONOUNS. 89 

ing of William^ it means William, When he is said 
in speaking of Thomas^ it means Thomas, 

The same view applies to she^ it^ and they. 

The word this^ taken by itself, is not the name of one 
object more than another. It varies in meaning accord- 
ing to the object spoken of. When applied to an object 
near one person, it means one thing. When applied 
to an object near another person, it means something 
else. 

The same applies to that^ these^ and to several other 
words. 

As none of the words above are the names of one 
object more than another, they are not names at all. 

Notwithstanding this, they can, each and all, form 
both the subjects and predicates of propositions ; as, 
I am Ae, thou art he^ he is Ae, we are they^ ye are they^ 
they are they^ I am the man^ the man is Ae, this is the 
man^ these are the women^ the hooks are these^ &c. 

Words that form by themselves both the subjects and 
predicates of propositions, and yet are not the names 
of objects, are called Pronouns. 

§ 182. The first class of pronouns consists of what 
are called the true Personal Pronouns. These are of 
two sorts. 1. Those of the First Person, viz. 7, me, 
we, 2. *Those of the Second Person, viz. thou^ ye. 

Declension. 
Pronouns of the First Person Singular, 



1. 

Nom. I 
Poss. — 
Obj. - 



2. 

Nom. — 
Poss. my 
Obj. me. 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. 

Pronouns of the First Person PluraL 

Nom. loe 
Poss. our 
Obj. us. 

Pronouns of the Second Person Singular, 

Nom. thou 
Poss. thy 
Obj. thee. 

Pronouns of the Second Person Plural. 

Nom. ye or you 

Poss. your 

Obj. you (or ye). 

Remarks. — I undergoes no change of form. It oc- 
curs only as a nominative case. For its other cases 
the words me and my are substitutes. 

Me and my were originally the same word (me, meh., 
or mec in Anglo-Saxon), and consequently constituted 
one and the same case, viz. the accusative. At present 
they form two cases ; me being an objective and my a 
possessive case. 

Although much altered, the words we., our^ and us 
are modifications of one and the same original form. 
The Danish forms are vi^ vor =z we^ our ; and in An- 
glo-Saxon we find user and ure equally. 

Thee and thy were originally one and the same word 
(J)e, peA, pec, Anglo-Saxon), and consequently consti- 
tuted one and the same case, viz. the accusative. At 



PRONOUNS. 91 

present they form two cases ; thee being an objective, 
and thy a possessive case. 

§ 183. The Demonstrative Pronouns. — The Demon- 
strative Pronouns derive their name from the Latin 
word demonstro^ I show^ or point out. The words this 
and that are used in pointing out objects, and for that 
reason are called Demonstrative. All the pronouns in- 
cluded in this class are not, in the present stage of the 
English language, so thoroughly demonstrative as the 
words this and that {this man., that horse). Still they 
are more or less of that character. 

§ 184. The Demonstrative Pronouns are of three 
sorts : — 1. Demonstrative Pronouns partaking of the 
nature of Personal Pronouns ; Ae, she. 2. True De- 
monstrative Pronouns ; this., that. 3. The Definite Ar- 
ticle the. 

§ 185. 1. Demonstrative Pronouns partaking of the 
nature of Personal Pronouns. — These are generally 
called Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. The 
reasons for changing their denomination are given in 
the author's work on the English Language.^ Their 
number is two : \. he ; 2. she. 





Declension. 






1. 




Masculine. 


Peminine. 


Neuter. 


Nom. he 


— 


it 


Poss. his 


her 


its 


Obj. him 


her 


it. 



* In § 182 of the second, or § 300 of the third edition. 



92 





ETYMOLOGY. 




2. 


Masculine. 


feminine. 


Nom. — 


she 


Poss. 


— 


Obj. — 


— 



Neuter. 



Remarks, — (1.) His (lii-s) now and originally a 
true possessive. In Anglo-Saxon, however, and until 
the reign of Elizabeth, it was common to both the mas- 
culine and neuter genders.^ (2.) Him^ originally 
a dative common to the masculine and neuter gen- 
ders ; now an objective case, and restricted to mas- 
culines only [hi-m). (3.) Her (he-r)^ originally hire^ 
or hyre^ used in Anglo-Saxon either as a dative or a 
possessive ; used in modern English as a possessive 
{Iter hook)^ or an objective {he led her). (4.) It; a 
true form for the neuter gender, of which the letter t 
was the sign. The form in Anglo-Saxon was hit (lii-t). 
The loss of the h has done much to disguise the nature 
of the present w^ord {it) , which is a true formation from 
he. (5.) Its ; a possessive irregularly formed. The sign 
of the possessive case is added to the sign of the neu- 
ter gender, instead of being put in the place of it. Its 
is a recent form. It is rarely found in the writers of 
Queen Elizabeth's reign ; never, according to Mr. 
Guest, in the Bible, and only occasionally in the dra- 
matic authors. To understand more thoroughly the 
irregularity in the word its^ we may compare it with 
the word whose. Had whose been formed on the same 
principle, we should have had in our language the 
word wha-t'S as a possessive case. 

^ If the salt have lost his flavor^ wherewith shall it he seasoned. 



PRONOUNS. 93 

The Anglo-Saxon declension of the word he was as 
follows. The parts that are absent from the present 
English are printed in Italics. 









Plural, all 


Masc. 


Fein. 


Neut. 


Genders. 


Nom, he 


heo 


hit 


hi 


Poss, his 


hire 


his 


hira 


Dat, him 


hire 


him 


him 


Ace. or Ohj, Tiine 


hi 


hit 


hi. 



Obs. All of the plural forms are lost. 

She occurs only as a nominative case, undergoing 
no change of form. For its other case the word her 
is employed in the singular, and the words they^ their ^ 
and them in the plural number. 

§ 186. 2. True Demonstrative Pronouns. — Under 
this class come the two words this and that. 

§ 187. This. — This word appears in two forms : 
nominative singular, this ; nominative plural, these. 
In Anglo-Saxon it was declined as fully as the word he. 
(See § 185.)i 

§ 188. That. — Originally a true form for the neuter 
singular (nominative and objective), of which ^ (as in 
it) was the sign, — tha-t. In Anglo-Saxon it was de- 
clined as fully as the word this (see § 187). At pres- 
ent its declension is limited. In the singular number 
it is undeclined. In the plural it takes two distinct 
forms. ^ 

First form. — Nominative and objective plural, those. 
This is the plural of that when it preserves its true de- 
monstrative sense, and when it is opposed to these ; 
e. g. these men^ those horses. 

^ But see English Language, \\ 301, 302 (3d ed.). 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

Second form, — Nominative ihey^ possessive their ^ 
objective them. This is the plural of that when its 
plural forms are used instead of the lost plural forms 
of he (see § 185), and when they take the sense of 
the demonstrative pronouns partaking of the nature of 
personal pronouns. (See § 185.) 

§ 189. 3. The Definite Article. — The {the man^ the 
men)., undeclined. In Anglo-Saxon the article was fully 
declined, but an indeclinable form J>e was also used for 
all cases of the article, from which our English the. 

In expressions like all the more., all the better = 
more hy all that^ letter by all that, the the has a differ- 
ent origin. It represents the Anglo-Saxon f?/, and sig- 
nifies by that. 

§ 190. The true Possessive Pronouns. — This is my 
hook ; this is a book of mine. In each of these prop- 
ositions we make an assertion as to the nature of a 
book. We state what the book is in regard to owner- 
ship or possession. We assert that it is my book., that 
it is a book belonging to me, that it is a book of mine, 
and not any other person's. In this case the words my 
and mine denote possession ; and, as they are pronouns, 
they may be called Possessive Pronouns. The same 
applies to thy and thine, her and hers, our and ours, 
your and yours, their and theirs. This is thy book ; 
this is a book of thine ; and so on throughout. 

Between, however, the words my, thy, our, your, her, 
and their, on one side, and mine, thine, ours, yours, 
hers, theirs, on the other side, there is the following 
difference. My, thy, our, your, her, and their signify 
possession, because they are possessive cases. They 
cannot, however, be called true Possessive Pronouns, 



PRONOUNS. 95 

because it is only in one particular form that they have 
that character ; me, thee^ we^ ye^ they^ have no power 
of the kind. Mine^ thine^ ours^ yours^ hers^ theirs^ 
signify possession for a different reason. They partake 
of the nature of adjectives, and in all the allied lan- 
guages are declined as such. 

In opposition to the words my, thy^ our^ your^ her^ 
their ^ they may be called the true Possessive Pronouns. 
Respecting the difference between these two classes of 
words, more may be seen in the Syntax.^ Those who 
are familiar with the classical languages may at once 
comprehend the distinction. My and thy are the equiv- 
alents of mei and tui ; mine and thine^ of mens (mea^ 
meum) and tuus {tua^ tuum) ; and, like mens (mea^ 
meum) and tuus (tua^ tuum)^ mine and thine were once 
declined. This last fact is conclusive as to their ad- 
jectival character. 

§ 191. In treating of the structure of the true pos- 
sessive pronouns, we must ask the following ques- 
tions. 

1. What is the kind of pronoun from which they are 
derived ? Mine and thine^ ours and yours^ are de- 
rived from the true personal pronouns of the first and 
second persons respectively ; hers and theirs from the 
demonstrative pronouns partaking of the nature of per- 
sonal pronouns. 

2. What is the number from which they are derived ? 
Ours^ yoursy and theirs are derived from the plural 
forms our^ your^ and their, 

§ 192. After this we must take the whole of the 

* See Chap. XXXYII. of the 3d ed. of the English Language. 



96 ETYMOLOGY. 

true possessive pronouns, six in number, and divide 
them into two classes. 

1. The possessive pronouns in w. Mine^ thine, 

2. The possessive pronouns in s, Ours^ yours^ hers^ 
theirs. 

§ 193. First Class. — Mine., thine. In these forms 
the n is no part of the original word ; m-7z, thi-n. 
Whether it had originally the power of a case and 
afterwards became adjectival is undetermined. The 
forms in w, confined to the true personal pronouns, 
and in them to the singular number, are of great an- 
tiquity. They occur in the Anglo-Saxon as min and 
J>2?2, and by some grammarians are dealt with as cases. 
Like mens and tuus in Latin, they were declined ; e. g. 
nun.) mine., minne., minum., minra. 

Second Class. — Forms in 5, — comprising the pos- 
sessives derived from the demonstrative pronouns par- 
taking of the nature of personal ones, and from the 
true personal pronouns when in the plural number ; — 
hers., theirs., ours., yours; or her-s., their-s., our-s., your-s ; 
or (the analysis being carried further still), he-r-s^ 
thei-r-s., ou-r-s., you-r-s. Although adjectival in mean- 
ing, these forms originated as cases ; and that since 
the Anglo-Saxon period. The s is the s of the genitive 
case ; so that, in these words, we have a case formed 
from a case. 

§ 194. The Interrogative Pronouns. — If we say, 
who is this 7 whose hook is this 7 what is this 7 whom 
do you speak to 7 we ask so many questions. The 
Latin word for to question is interrogare. The words 
who., whom., what., whose., are pronouns. Being used in 
askmg questions, they are called Interrogative Pro- 



PRONOUNS. 97 

WTiat^ whose^ whom^ are all cases of the word who<f 
which is declined like he. Nominative masculine, who ; 
nominative neuter, what (wha-t) ; possessive, whose^ 
{who'S) ; objective, whom (who-m). For the true na- 
ture of which^ see § 200. 

§ 195. It may be seen that the pronouns have more 
cases than the substantives. Besides the possessive 
forms in 5, such as hi-s^ who-se^ our-s^ dz;c., there is a 
distinction between the nominative and objective forms. 
Nominative, Ae, thej/^ who. Objective, him^ them^ whom^ 
her. 

§ 196. It may also be seen, that in the pronouns are 
preserved vestiges of a grammatical expression of gen- 
der. J-it, tha-t^ and wha-t are true neuter signs ; t be- 
ing the original sign of the neuter gender. In the pres- 
ent Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Icelandic, and in 
the Old Norse and Moeso-Gothic, all neuter adjectives 
end in t. 

§ 197. With three exceptions, the pronouns exhibited 
above are the only ones whereof there is any declen- 
sion. The rest are wholly undeclined, except, — 

§ 198. 1. One. — When the word means people at 
large^ and so has a general signification, it is declined 
like a substantive. Nominative singular, one ; posses- 
sive, one^s ; nominative plural, ones. Examples : one is 
apt to love one'^s self ; my wife and little ones are well. 

With respect to the word owe, at least when used in 
the singular for people at large^ it must be observed 
that it has nothing to do with the number one^ or 1. 
It is derived from the French word on (as in on dii)^ 
which in its older forms is om, omme^ homme ; and which 
originates in the Latin word homo = a man. Instead 
7 



98 ETYMOLOGY. 

of one says^ the Germans at the present moment say, 
man sagt^ or, man says. And the Anglo-Saxon had a 
similar form. 

§199. 2. Other, — Declined like /a^Aer. This is that 
man'^s^ that is the other^s. The others are coming. 

3. Self. — Declined like leaf. Plural, ourselves^ 
yourselves. The genitive form selfs is not found, al- 
though there is no reason why it should not occur in 
phrases like the following. Question : — Are you sure 
this is your own property ? Answer : — Yes ! I am 
sure it is my own self's. 

§ 200. The present is a proper place for explaining 
the true nature of the word which. The general opinion 
is that it is the neuter of loho. Now it is a neuter in 
meaning only ; and that not always. The true neuter 
form of who is wha-t. Which is a compound word, 
formed out of the word who and the word like. Thus 
we have in Moeso-Gothic, hve-leiks ; Old High German, 
hue-lih ; Anglo-Saxon, hwi-lc ; Old Frisian, hwe-lik ; 
German, we-lch ; Lowland Scotch, ichi-lk ; English, 
whi-ch (the I being softened down and lost). 

The same is the case with the word such.. Moe- 
so-Gothic, sva-leiks ; Old High German, so-lih ; Old 
Saxon, su-lic ; Anglo-Saxon, swi-lc ; German, sol-ch ; 
English, su'ch, 

THE NUMERALS. 

§201. Cardinal Numhers. — It rarely happens that 
the cardinal numbers (orie, two.^ three, four ^ &c.) are in 
any language declined throughout. The word one is 
naturally singular, so that it has no need of taking any 
particular form in order to distinguish it from a plural. 



NUMERALS. 99 

In like manner, the rest of the numbers are naturally- 
plural, so that words like jive and six have no need of 
taking any particular form to distinguish them from sin- 
gulars. These facts do away with the necessity of any 
forms expressive of number. The expression of case 
and gender is not so naturally superfluous ; and hence 
in many languages the earlier numerals are declined. 
In the present English all the cardinals are undeclined. 
One antiquated word, however, preserves a trace of an 
earlier Anglo-Saxon declension. The word twain was 
originally the accusative masculine of twd (twd-n^ An- 
glo-Saxon, twegen). It may be interesting to be in- 
formed that the original accusative form in Anglo-Saxon 
for adjectives and pronouns in the masculine gender and 
singular number ended in -w, or -Tie, and that the orig- 
inal accusative forms of he and wJio were not Jiiin and 
whom (Jii-m^ hvce-m) ^hut hine and hivcene (hi-ne^ hwce-ne). 
The forms in m that are at present current as objective 
cases {him and whom) were originally datives. Him in 
Anglo-Saxon meant to him^ and hwcBm in Anglo-Saxon 
meant to whom. The word twain., then, is of interest, 
inasmuch as it is the only word wherein the original 
Anglo-Saxon accusative ending is preserved. 

§ 202. Ordinal Numbers. — The cardinal number 
one had no corresponding ordinal form derived from it. 
The word first is a superlative form derived from the 
root fore. There is no such word as on-th. 

The cardinal number two has no corresponding ordinal 
form derived from it. The word second is derived from 
the Latin secundus. There is no such word as two-th. 

The remainder of the cardinal numerals have corre- 
sponding ordinals derived from them. 



100 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Cardinal. 


Ordinal. 




Three 


. . . Thir-d. 




Four . 


. . . Four-th. 




Five . 


. . . Fif-th. 




Six . 


. . . Six-th. 




Seven 


. . . Seven-th, 


&c. 



The ordinal form is derived from the cardinal by the 
addition of the sound it/i,^ subject to slight variations. 
In thirds th becomes d^ and there is a transposition of 
the letter r. In fifths the vowel is shortened. 

THE VERB. 

§ 203. The verbs fall into two divisions. The first 
contains the Verb Substantive. The second contains 
the Common Verbs, or, speaking simply, the Verbs. 

§ 204. The §§ 95 - 99 should now be read atten- 
tively. Words that, by themselves, form the copulas of 
propositions, are called Verbs Substantive ; e. g. J am 
speakings thou art writings he is singings she is playing^ 
it is burnings we are speakings ye are singings they are 
playing^ summer is coinings winter is departing^ the 
horses are feedings the sun is shinirig hrightly^ the rain 
is falling fast this mornings I was moving^ we were 
speakings &c. In all these sentences the words am^ art^ 
is^ are^ was^ and were^ constitute by themselves copulas ; 
that is, they connect the subjects (7, thou^ Ae, she^ it^ we^ 
?/e, they^ summer^ winter^ the horses^ the sun^ the rain^ i, 
and we) with the predicates {speakings writings sing- 
ings playing^ burnings speakings singings playing^ com- 
ings departing^ feedings shining brightly ^ falling fast 

^ As in thin. 



VERBS. 101 

this mornings moving^ speaking). Consequently they 
are all verbs substantive. The verbs substantive, in 
English, in their different forms, are, — 

1. Be ; heest^^ beings been ; or 5e, be-est^ be-ing^ bee-n. 

2. Am ; art^ is^ are ; or a-m, a-rt^ i-s^ a-re, 

3. Was ; wast^ were^ wert ; or w-as^ w-as-t, w-ere^ 
lo-er-t. 

§ 205. Before we consider the nature of the Common 
Verbs, or Verbs properly so called, it is necessary to 
turn to § 94, and observe the words in the third col- 
umn. 

Now, if we take any of these words, we shall find 
that it expresses an action. Hence, speakings barkings 
growing.^ mouldering., cracking., crumbling., hunting., 
shooting., killing., living., dying., are all words in which 
there is the notion of doing something, or of action. 
This is not the case with the words in the first two col- 
umns. In them there is no notion of action. 

Now the words in the third column, and words like 
them {growing., mouldering., &c.), are adjectives of a 
peculiar sort. They are called Participles. A partici- 
ple can. constitute a predicate ; as, I am speaking, &c. 
In this respect they agree with the common adjective. 
But, besides this, they convey the notion of actions ; 
which adjectives do not. 

§ 206. Refer to § 204. Take any one of the propo- 
sitions contained in that section ; as, 7 am speaking <, &c. 
Omit the copula, or verb substantive (am). The re- 
mainder is I speakings which is nonsense. 

Reject, however, from the word speaking {speak-ing) 

^ Obsolete. — If thou beest he. — Milton. 



102 ETYMOLOGY, 

the syllable ing^ and so reduce the word speak-ing to 
speak. The remainder is I speak^ words which consti- 
tute a proposition, and make good sense. 

§ 207. The fact is, that the word speak constitutes at 
once both copula and predicate, and is equivalent to the 
words am speaking in the proposition I am speaking. 

Also, the word speak combines the powers of the verb 
substantive (am) and of the participle {speaking). 

Words that by themselves can form both a copula 
and a predicate at once are called Common Verbs, or 
Verbs properly so called, or, simply. Verbs. They can 
always be resolved into a verb substantive and a parti- 
ciple. 

§ 208. Participles are, therefore, akin both to the 
verbs and the adjectives. In the formation of proposi- 
tions they play the part of adjectives, but in respect to 
their meaning they are allied to the verbs ; inasmuch as 
they convey the notion of action. 

Every participle presupposes a verb. And every 
verb can be reduced to the verb substantive and a par- 
ticiple. 

§ 209. There are certain other nouns that denote ac- 
tion, and are the names of persons who perform some 
action, or of agents. These are related to the substan- 
tive and verb, just as the participle is related to the ad- 
jective and verb. They are called Verbals. 
hunt-er = a man who hunts, 
eat-er = a man who eats, 
drink-er = a man who drinks, 
sleep-er = a man who sleeps, 
feed-er z=z a man who feeds, 
grind-er = a man who grinds^ &;c. 



VERBS. 103 

^ 210. The verb is by most grammarians considered 
the most important of the parts of speech. From this 
view it derives its name. The Latin word verhum 
means word ; and the verb has been held preeminently 
the word in language. 

§ 211. The verbs in English must be considered in 
respect to (1.) Person, (2.) Number, (3.) Tense, (4.) 
Mood. Besides this, it must be remembered that they 
can take the form of Participles. 

§ 212. Person. — In the words thou speakest^ the 
pronoun thou is of the Second Person, and the verb 
speaJc^ when taken along with it, has attached to it the 
syllable est. The syllable est is an ending or termina- 
tion. It shows that the word is taken with a pronoun 
of the second person. It is called the Sign of the Sec- 
ond Person ; and the word speakest is said to be in the 
Second Person. The sign of the Third Person is s; 
as, he speaks. 

^ 213. Number. — When we say, he reads., we speak 
of an action (the action of reading) performed by one 
person, or object. In this case the verb is Singular. 
But when we say, they read., we speak of an action (the 
action of reading) performed by more than one person, 
or object. In this case the verb is Plural. 

There is sometimes a distinction of form between 
verbs singular and verbs plural ; in which case there is 
said to be a sign of Number. 

§ 214. Tense. — When we use the word call., we 
speak of a certain action., namely, the action of calling. 
When we speak of the action that is taking place at the 
very time when we are speaking, we say, I call., thou 
call-est^ he calls, we call, ye call, they call. But if we 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

speak of the action as having taken place at some other 
time which has passed by, we say I call-ed^ thou calU 
ed-st^ he call-ed^ we call-ed^ ye call-ed^ they call-ed. 
Now the forms call and call-ed are different. The form 
call denotes Present, the form call-ed Past Time. The 
presence of the additional sound d is the Sign of Past 
Time ; the absence of that sound is the Sign of Present 
Time. A word with the sign of either past, present, or 
any other (such as future) time, is said to be in a cer- 
tain Tense. The word call is in the Present, the word 
call-ed in the Past Tense. 

§ 215. Mood. — When we say, John walks., we state 
something as a fact. We say positively that the action 
of walking is going on. 

When we say, John ! walk ! we give orders for 
something to take place ; viz. the action of walking. 
We do not say that the action of walking is posi- 
tively taking place, or going to take place. We only 
express a wish, or give a command, that it should take 
place. 

When we say, if John walk fast^ he tvill fatigue 
himself we use the word walk in a third sense. We 
do not say that the action of walking is taking place, 
has taken place, or will take place. Neither do we 
express a wish or a command that it may take place. 
We say, however, that if it do take place, something 
else will take place also ; viz. that the person who 
causes it to take place (John) will fatigue himself 
(that is, the fatigue will take place). Now in this 
case there is the idea of conditions and contingen- 
cies. John's fatigue is contingent upon his walking 
fast ; that is, it is the fast walking that John's fatigue 



VERBS. MOOD. 105 

depends on. The fast walking is the condition of 
John's fatigue. 

In the phrase John begins to walk^ the word walk is 
in a different sense from any of the preceding. 

We shall now find, on looking back, that the word 
walk has appeared in four different senses. It has, in- 
deed, all along expressed the action to walk ; but it has 
conveyed the idea of it under four different aspects, or 
manners. 

These different aspects, or manners, are called 
Moods^ from the Latin word modus = a manner. In 
many languages the moods have particular signs, just 
like the tenses. In English the distinction between the 
moods is very slight. 

§ 216. In the sentence, John walks ^ the word walks is 
in the Indicative Mood. It indicates the fact of John's 
walking. 

In the command, John I walk ! the word walk is in 
the Imperative Mood. The word Imperative is derived 
from the Latin word impero = I command. 

In the sentence, if John walk fast^ he will fatigue 
himself the word walk is in the Conjunctive Mood. In 
this case there is conjoined with the proposition in ques- 
tion another proposition. In the case quoted, he will 
fatigue himself is one proposition ; John walks fast 
is another. The word if connects the two, and this 
connection changes the mood of the word walks ^ 
which becomes walk. From this fact the mood is 
called Conjunctive ; from the Latin word conjungo = 
I conjoin^ or join together. 

In the sentence, John begins to walk^ the verb walk 
is subordinate to the word begins. It merely states 



106 ETYMOLOGY. 

what the action is that Jolin begins to perform (viz. 
the action of walking). This it does and nothing more. 
It does not fix or dcfne the manner of the action. It 
does not determine whether it really takes place, or 
will take place under certain conditions. All this is 
done by the other verb {hegins). This mood defines 
nothing, and is therefore called the Infinitive Mood. 

§ 217. We now inquire how far the different (1.) 
Persons, (2.) Numbers, (3.) Moods, and (4.) Tenses, 
are expressed by corresponding signs. 

PERSON. 

§ 218. Sign of the First Person Singular. — Found 
in one verb only. In the word am {a-m) the m is no 
part of the original word. It is the sign of the First 
Person Singular Present Indicative. Beyond this, no 
word in English has, in any mood, tense, or number, 
any form of termination for the First Person. 

§ 219. Sign of the Second Person Singular. — The 
usual sign of the Second Person Singular is est or edst ; 
as, thou call-est. It occurs both in the present and past 
tenses ; thou calledst^ thou spakest. Like the pronoun 
thou^ it is rarely used except in formal discourse. 

§ 220. Sign of the Third Person Singular. — The 
usual sign of the Third Person Singular is the sound 
of the syllable eth^ or of the letters 5, z (or es) ; as, he 
call-eth^ or he calls. The first of these two forms is 
only used in formal discourse. The Third Person is 
only found in the indicative mood, and in the present 
tense. We cannot say, if he speaketh, or if he speaks ; 
neither can we say, he called-th^ or he called-s^ he spak- 
eth^ or he spake-s. 



VERBS. — - PERSON. 107 

Whether the addition be the sound of 5 in seal (as 
hits), of z in zeal (as call-z), or of the syllable ez (as 
hiss-ez), depends upon the same circumstances as the 
use of the same sounds in the possessive case, and 
the nominative plural. 

§ 221. Throughout the whole of the plural there are 
no signs of the persons ; no changes of form : we call, 
ye call, they call ; we called, ye called, they called. 

In respect to Person the following peculiarities de- 
serve notice. 

§ 222. Forms sungest and sdiUgest. — In Anglo-Sax- 
on the word sing, and a great number of words like it, 
took in the past tense a different vowel for the second 
person from the one found in the first and third ; e. g. 
Ic sang (I sang), he sang (he sang), were the forms 
for the first and third persons singular ; where the 
vowel was a. But the second person singular was ]>u 
sunge (thou sungest) ; where the vowel was u. In this 
way were conjugated (amongst others) the following 
verbs : swim, hegin, sing, spring, ring, sink, drink, 
shrink, run. In all these words the second person sin- 
gular of the past tense was formed in u, whilst the first 
and third persons took the vowel a ; e. g. Ipu swumme, 
'pu on-gunne, Ipu sunge, ]>u sprunge, ])u runge, ]>u sunce, 
Jpu drunce, ]>u runne, = thou swummest, thou begun- 
nest, thou sungest, &;c., &c. ; and, on the other hand, 
Ic (or he) swam, Ic (or he) ongann, Ic (or he) sang, Ic 
(or he) sprang, Ic (or he) rang, Ic (or he) sank, Ic 
(or he) drank, Ic (or he) rann = J (or he) swam, I 
(or he) began, &c., &c. There were no such forms in 
Anglo-Saxon as Ic (or he) swumm, or as ]>u swamme. 
Now this distinction of person is not adhered to in the 



108 ETYMOLOGY. 

present English, since it is the author's opinion that the 
writers and speakers who say I (or he) sang^ say also 
thou sa.ngest ; whilst those who say thou sungest^ say 
also I (or he) sung. 

§ 223. Second Persons not ending in st. — In five 
words the sign of the second person singular is not est 
(as in read-est)^ but t; as ar-t, was-t^ wer-t^ shal-t^ 
wil't : thou ar-t^ thou was-t^ thou wer-t, thou shal-t, 
thou wil't. There are no such words as ar-est^ waS' 
est^ wer-est^ shall-est ; and the word will-est, when used 
at all, is different in sense from wil-t. 

Now, in the Moeso- Gothic and the Old Norse, the 
second person singular of a certain class of preterites 
ended in t : as svor-t (swor-est), graip-t (gripedst)^ 
Moeso-Gothic ; hrann-t {hurn-ed-st)^ gaf-t (gave-st)^ 
Old Norse. 

Again, in the same languages, ten words, of which 
skal {shall) is one, were never formed in respect to 
their persons like present^ but always like preterite 
tenses. 

Mxso' Gothic, 



Singular. 


Plural. 


1. skal 


skul-um 


2. skal-t 


skul-u]? 


3. skal. 


skul-un. 


Old Norse. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. skal 


skul-um 


2. skal-t 


skul-uS 


3. skal. 


skul-u. 



It is most probable that the t in ar-t^ was-t^ wer-t^ 



VERBS. — NUMBERS. 109 

shal't^ wiht^ is the t of the second person singular pre- 
terite in the Mceso-Gothic and the Old Norse. 

NUMBERS. 

§ 224. In the words a-m, speak-est^ speak-etli (or 
speaks)^ the sounds of wz, est^ and eth (or 5) respect- 
ively denote a difference of person. They also de- 
note a difference of number, since they are found only 
in the singular. But this they do in a secondary way. 
They are truly the signs of persons ; the only real 
sign expressive of a difference of number occurs in 
the past tense of the indicative mood of the verb sub- 
stantive. 

Singular. Plural. 

I was. We were. 

Thou wast. Ye were. 

He was. They were. 

§ 225. Sung and sang. — By referring to § 222, we 
shall see that in Anglo-Saxon the vowel in the second 
person singular in the preterite of words like sing 
{sang^ sung) was different from that in the first {ic 
sang^ ]>u sunge). The same took place in respect to 
the numbers ; e. g. 

Ic am, I ran. We urnon, we run. 

Ic ongan, I hegan. We ongunnon, we begun. 

Ic span, I span. We spunnon, we spun. 

Ic sang, I sang. We sungon, we sung. 

Ic swang, I swang. We swungon, we swung. 

Ic dranc, I drank. We druncon, we drunk. 

Ic sane, I sank. We suncon, we sunk. 

Ic swam, IszdJam. We swummom^ we swum. 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

Ic sprang, I sprang. We sprungon, we sprung. 
Ic rang, I rang. We rungon, we rung. 

There are no such forms in Anglo-Saxon as ic (or he) 
swumm^ or as we (ge or hi) swammon. Now this dis- 
tinction of person is not adhered to in the present Eng- 
lish. It is the author's opinion that the writers and 
speakers who say, I (or he) sang^ say also, we (ye or- 
they) sang ; whilst those who say, we {ye or they) swum^ 
say also, J (or he) swum. 

The double forms clave and clove^ rode and rid^ wrote 
and writ^ and many others, are to be accounted for in 
a similar way. 

MOODS. 

§ 226. The only instance in English of a verb in 
one mood being distinguished from a verb in another 
by any positive sign, occurs in the conjugation of the 
word was. 



Indicative, 


Subjunctive. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


I was. 


We were. 


If I were. If we were. 


Thou wast. 


Ye were. 


If thou wert. If ye were. 


He was. 


They were. 


If he were. If they were 



§ 227. In the sentence, John walks, as compared with 
the sentence, if John walk he will he fatigued, there is a 
difference between the word walks (indicative) and the 
word walk (conjunctive). The conjunctive o7nits the 
sign of the person (5). This, however, is only a neg- 
ative sign, and consequently scarcely constitutes a true 
distinction in form between the two moods. In the 



VEKBS. . — STRONG CONJUGATION. Ill 

same manner we say, thou walkest^ but, if thou walk. 
It is only in the second and third persons singular of the 
present tense that the conjunctive differs at all from the 
indicative. 

TENSES. 

§ 228. The tenses in English are two : 1. the Pres- 
ent, as I call ^ I speak ; 2. the Past, as I called^ I spoke. 
The past tense is also called the Preterite, from the 
Latin word prceteritus = gone hy or past. 

§ 229. Participles. — The participles in English are 
two: 1. the Present Participle Active, as call-ing^ speak- 
ing ; 2. the Past Participle Passive, as call-ed^ spok-en. 

§ 230. The English verbs fall into two classes, ac- 
cording to the forms of their past tense and their past 
participles. Instead of Class, the grammarians often 
say Conjugation ; so that the verbs . may be said to fall 
into two Conjugations. 

THE STRONG CONJUGATION. 

§ 231. The Conjugation of verbs that demands the 
first notice is called the Strong Conjugation. 

Verbs of the strong conjugation form their past (or 
preterite) tense from the present, by simply changing 
the vowel. Thus sang is formed from sing by chan- 
ging i into a; fell (the past tense) from fall (the present 
tense), by changing the a into e; and so on throughout : 
speak ^ spake or spoke ; steals stole ; drink ^ drank ; draw^ 
drew^ &c. 

§ 232. Verbs of the strong conjugation form their 
past participle by the addition of en, generally accom- 
panied by a change of vowel, as speak^ spok-en. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 233. Sometimes the en in the present language is 
omitted ; as Jind^ found. In all these cases it must es- 
pecially be remembered that this rejection of the en 
occurs only in the later stages of our language. In 
words like found the original participle was funden^ 
and so on throughout. In many cases both forms occur : 
as drink ^ participle drunken^ or drunk, 

§ 234. The vowel of the participle is often the same 
as the vowel of the past tense, as spoke ^ spoken ; but 
not always, as took^ taken. When the former is the 
case, and when, at the same time, the en (or n) is re- 
jected, the past tense and the past participle have the 
same form ; as I founds I have found. In this case it 
seems as if the past tense was used for the participle. 
Now it is only in a few words, and in the most modern 
forms of our language, that this is really done. 



Present. 


Past Tense. 


Participle. 


hold 


held 


held 


Z>e-hold 


be -held 


be-held 


strike 


struck 


struck 


smite 


smote 


smote 


ride 


rode 


rode. 



Held. — The regular participle is holden. Conse- 
quently the form that would arise from the simple re- 
jection of the en would be hold. Such, however, is 
not the case. Held is really a preterite form used as a 
participle. The same reasoning applies to the com- 
pound he-hold. 

Struck, — The regular participle is stricken. Never- 
theless, there is no such shortened form as strick. 

Smote. — The regular participle is smitten. This is 



VERBS. STRONG CONJUGATION. 113 

occasionally used. It ought always to be so. The 
shortened form smit (J have smit) is also of occasional 
occurrence. When smote^ however, occurs, it occurs 
through a confusion of the preterite and participial 
forms. A stanza from Lord Byron's " Hebrew Melo- 
dies " illustrates the whole of the present section : — 

" And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail ; 
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; 
And the might of the Gentile, unsmote hy the sword, 
Has melted like snow in the glance of the Lord." 

The words broke and smote^ both exceptionable, are ex- 
ceptionable in different degrees and for different reasons. 
Broke is not necessarily a preterite form used parti- 
cipially. It may be (and probably it is) the participial 
form abbreviated {hrok-en^ hroke), Smote^ however, 
cannot have arisen out of any abbreviation of a parti- 
cipial form. Such a form would be smit. 

The same reasoning applies to the participles of ride^ 
stride^ and (perhaps) write. The right forms are rid- 
den^ stridden^ written ; the next best, rid^ stride writ ; 
the worst, rode., strode., wrote. Few writers would ven- 
ture to say, I have wrote a letter. 

These remarks show that, naturally and properly, 
the participle, even when it has the same form as the 
preterite {found) ^ is formed independently. 

§ 235. The past participles are exhibited in the 
fourth and fifth columns of the ensuing lists. The 
fourth column contains the full participles in en (many 
of which are more or less obsolete), the fifth, those 
where the n is omitted. The asterisk (*) denotes that 
the word is obsolete. The note of interrogation (?) 
denotes that it is a matter of doubt whether the word 
8 



114 ETYMOLOGY. 

to which it is attached be sufficiently established by- 
usage. 

§ 236. Several strong verbs have two forms of the 
past tense ; as spake^ spoke ; sang^ sung. Some of these 
double forms are capable of explanation. See §§ 222 
and 225. All cannot be thus accounted for ; for in- 
stance, the two forms spake and spoke, 

§ 237. The past tenses of the strong verbs are ex- 
hibited in the second and third columns of the ensuing 
lists ; the additional column being appropriated to those 
that have two forms. The asterisk (*) denotes that the 
word to which it is attached is obsolete. The letter [p) 
indicates that the word to which it is attached may be 
explained by §§ 222 and 225. 

This letter stands for plural^ and it is supposed that 
the forms by the side of which it appears are de- 
rived from plural forms as exhibited in § 225, or from 
(what is the same thing) those of the second person 
singular as exhibited in § 222. 

The Strong Verbs may be conveniently divided into 
classes as follows : ^ — 

§ 238. First Class, 
The sound of o is changed into that of e in the 
past tense. 



PRESENT. 


PAST TENSE. PAST TENSE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


PARTICIPLE. 




(First form.) (Second form.) 


(Full form.) 


(Shortened form.) 


fall 


fell 


fallen 




hold 


held 


holden 





^ For a fuller explanation of the principles of this division, see 
Chap. XXIII. of English Language. Although the arrangement 
here adopted is essentially Latham's, yet it is proper to state that 
changes have been made in a few of the forms. The order of the 
seventh and eighth classes has been reversed. 



VERBS. STRONG CONJUGATION. 



115 



§ 239. Second Class. 
The preterite ends in a w^ which has grown out of 
an Anglo-Saxon g. 



'RESENT. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


PARTICIPLE. 




(First form.) 


(Second form.) 


(Full form.) 


(Shortened form.) 


draw 


drew 




drawn 




slay 


slew 




slain 




fly 


flew 




flown 




see 


saw 




seen 





§ 240. Third Class. 
O before w in the present becomes e before w in the 
preterite. 



blow 


blew 


crow 


crew 


grow 


grew 


know 


knew 


throw 


threw 



blown 
*crown 
grown 
known 
thrown 



§ 241. Fourth Class. 
Short e in the present remains unchanged in the 
preterite, 
let let — let. 



§ 242. Fifth Class. 
Sound of long e remains unchanged, 
beat beat beaten 



§ 243. Sixth Class. 



come 
become ^ 



came 
became 



beat. 



come 
become. 



^ The word become = Jit or suit is a different word from become 
the derivative of come. Become = Jit, suit^ is of the same origin 
with the German bequem = Jilting or convenient. It is properly a 
weak word ; although the practice of language has sanctioned the 
confusion. We cannot, although we ought to. say becomed. 



116 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 244. Seventh Class, 
In this class the sounds of the ee in feet and of the a 
in fate (spelt ea) is changed into a. Several words of 
this class have secondary forms. The first form pre- 
serves the Anglo-Saxon vowel. 



PRESENT. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


PARTICIPLE. 




(First form.) 


(Second form.) 


(Full form.) 


(Shortened form.) 


speak 




spake 


spoke 


spoken 




wreak 




*wrake 


*wroke 


*wroken 




stave 




stove 






stove 


break 




brake 


broke 


broken 


Ibroke 


cleave i 


{split) 


*clave 


clove p. 


cloven 




cleave 


(stick) 


clave 








steal 




*stale 


stole 


stolen 




eat 




ate 




eaten 


eat 


seethe 




1 


*S0dj9. 


sodden 


*sod 


tread 




*trad 


trod 


trodden 


trod 


bear 




bare 


bore 


borne 




tear 




*tare 


tore 


torn 




swear 




sware 


swore 


sworn 




wear 




*ware 


wore 


worn 




bid 




bade 




bidden 


bid 


sit 




sat 




sitten 




give 




gave 




given 


— 


lie 




lay 




lain 




get 




*gat 


got 


gotten 


got 


forget 






forgot 


forgotten 


forgot. 


All the words with 


secondary 


forms will 


appear again 


in the 


eighth class. 









§ 245. Eighth Class, 
In this class we have the sounds of the ee in feet ^ 
and of the a in fate (spelt ea or a), changed into o 
or 00. Several words in this class have already ap- 
peared in the seventh class. 

* sedth (Anglo-Saxon). 



VERBS. STRONG CONJUGATION. 



117 



PRESENT. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


PARTICIPLE. 




(First form.) 


(Second form.) 


(Full form.) 


(Shortened form.) 


heave 


hove 




*hoven 




cleave (split) clove p. 


*clave 


cloven 




weave 


wove 




woven 




freeze 


froze 




frozen 




steal 


stole 


*stale 


stolen 




speak 


spoke 


spake 


spoken 


?spoke 


swear 


swore 


sware 


sworn 




bear 


bore 


bare 


borne 




tear 


tore 


*tare 


torn 




wear 


wore 


*ware 


worn 




shear 


*shore 




shorn 




break 


broke 


brake 


broken 


-^broke 


shake 


shook 




shaken 




take 


took 




taken 




forsake 


forsook 




forsaken 




stand 


stood 
quoth 
got 




stood 




get 


*gat 


gotten 


got 


forget 


forgot 




forgotten 


forgot. 



§ 246. Ninth Class. 
-4, as in fate^ is changed either into the o in note^ or 



he 00 in 


book. 


awake 


awoke — 


lade 


*lode laden 


grave 


*grove graven 


take 


took taken 


shake 


shook shaken 


forsake 


forsook • forsaken 


shape 


*shope shapen 




§ 247. Tenth Class. 



strike 



' *strake 

*strook 

' struck 



stricken 



118 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 248. Eleventh Class 
In this class we find the secondary forms accounted 
for by the difference of form between the singular and 
plural number. The change is from the i in hite to 
the in note and the i in pit. Sometimes it is from 
the i in bit to the a in hat. 



>RESENT. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


PARTICIPLE. 




(First form.) (Second form ) 


(Full form.) 


(Shortened form ) 


rise 


rose 


*ris p. 


risen 




abide 


abode 




^abidden 




shine 


shone 




shone 




smite 


smote 


smit;? 


smitten 


smit 


ride 


rode 


*rid p. 


ridden 


rid 


stride 


strode 


strid 


stridden 


strid 


slide 


*slode 


slid/>. 


slid den 


slid 


glide 


*glode 




^glidden 


«glid 


chide 


*chode 


chid p. 


chidden 


chid 


drive 


Mrove 


*driv p. 


driven 




thrive 


throve 


*thriv 


thriven 




shiive 


shrove 




shriven 




strive 


strove 




striven 




write 


wrote 


writ;?. 


written 


writ 


climb 


*clomb 








slit 


*slat 


slit p. 


*slitten 


slit 


spii; 


spat 




spitten 


spit 


bite 


*bat 


bit p. 


bitten 


bit 


fight 


fought 






fought. 



§ 249. Twelfth Class. 
In this class i is generally short ; originally it was 
always so. In the singular form it becomes a, in the 
plural w. 



swim 
beffin 



swam 
an 



swum p. 
begun p. 



swum 
begun 



^ Formerly drave. 





VERBS. — 


-STRONG C( 


:)NJUGATIO]S 


r. iiy 


PRESENT. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


PARTICIPLE. 




(First form.) 


(Second form ) 


(Full form.) i 


CShortened form.) 


spin 


*span 


spun p. 




spun 


win 


*wan 


Von p. 




%on 


sing 


sang 


sung p. 


*sungen 


• sung 


swing 


*swang 


swung p. 




swung 


spring 


sprang 


sprung p. 




sprung 


sting 


*stang 


stung p. 




stung 


ring 


rang 


rxmgp. 




rung 


wring 


*wrang 


wrung p. 




wrung 


fling 


flang 


flung 




flung 


cling 




clung p. 




clung 


*hing 


hang 


hung 




hung 


string 


^Strang 


strung 




strung 


sling 




slung p. 




slung 


sink 


sank 


sunk p. 


sunken 


sunk 


drink 


drank 


drunk p. 


drunken 


drunk 


shrink 


shrank 


shrunk p. 


shrunken 


shrunk 


stink 


*stank 


stunk p. 




stunk 


swink 


*swank 


*swunk p. 


*swunken 




slink 




slunk p. 




slunk 


swell 


*swolI 




swollen 




melt 


*molt 




molten 




help 


*holp 




*holpen 




delve 


Molve 




*dolven 




dig 




dug 




dug 


stick 


*stack 


stuck 




stuck 


run 


ran 


run 




run 


burst 




burst 


*bursten 


burst 


bind 


*band 


bound 


*bounden 


bound 


find 


*fand 


found 




found 


grind 




ground 




ground 


wind 




wound 




wound 




§250 


. Thirteenth Class, 




choose 


chose 




chosen 








^ Sounded wun. 





120 ETYMOLOGY. 

THE WEAK CONJUGATION. 

§ 251. The second conjugation of English verbs is 
called the Weak Conjugation. 

Verbs of the weak conjugation form their past tense 
from the present by the addition of the sound of d^ t^ 
or ed ; as JIU^ filled (pronounced fiUd)^ dip^ dipped 
(pronounced dipt)^ instruct^ instructed. 

§ 252. In the present English the past participle and 
past tense have generally the same form. I filled (past 
tense), I have filled (past participle) ; I dipped (past 
tense), I have dipped (past participle) ; I instructed 
(past tense), I have instructed (past participle). 

§ 253. Verbs of the weak conjugation are divided 
into three classes : — 

1st. Verbs forming their preterites by the simple ad- 
dition of the sound of d^ t^ or ed ; as move., moved ; 
toss., tossed (pronounced tost) ; instruct., instructed. 

2d. Verbs forming their preterites by the addition 
of the sound of d or t., and by shortening the vowel 
of the present ; as fiee^ fied ; keep., kept. No word of 
this division forms its preterite by the addition of the 
syllable ed. 

3d. Verbs forming their preterites by the addition 
of the sound of cZ or /, and by changing the vowel ; 
as, tell., tol'd ; catch., caught. 

§ 254. Whether the addition be cZ or i^ depends upon 
the flatness or sharpness of the preceding letter. 

1. After Z>, v., th (as in clothe)., g., or %, the addition 
is d. This is a matter of necessity. We say, stahd, 
movd., clothd., hraggd^ whizzd., because staht^ movt^ 
clotht, hraggt^ whizzt^ are unpronounceable. 



VERBS. WEAK CONJUGATION. 



121 



2. After Z, m, w, r, w^ 2/, or a vowel, the addition 
is also d. This is the habit of the English language. 
Filt, slurt^ strayt^ &c., are as pronounceable as jilld^ 
slurrd^ strayd^ &:c. It is the habit, however, of the 
English language to prefer the latter forms. 

§ 255. First Class. — In the past tenses of this 
class the sound of d^ t^ or ed is simply added to the 
present form. To this class belong the greater part 
of the weak verbs, and all verbs of foreign origin. 



serve 


served 


dip 


dipped {dipt) 


cry 


cried 


slip 


slipped (slipt) 


betray 


betrayed 


step 


stepped (stept) 


expel 


expelled 


look 


looked (lookt) 


accuse 


accused 


pluck 


plucked (pluckt) 


instruct 


instructed 


toss 


tossed (^05^) 


invite 


invited 


push 


pushed (pusht) 



waste wasted 



confess confessed(co7i/es^). 



§ 256. Whenever the present ends in t or ^, it is 
impossible to form the past tense by the addition of a 
second t ox d^ because (§47) two identical letters can- 
not come together in the same syllable. 

The difficulty is met, in the present case, by insert- 
ing a vowel between the ^ or ^ of the present, and the 
t or d which is the sign of the past tense ; as instruct^ 
instruct-e-d^ not instrucft. 

§ 257. It is to be remarked that only words ending 
in t or d^ and not all of those, form their past tense by 
the addition of the sound of the syllable ed. In words 
like moved {moovd) and killed (killd) the e is present 
to the eye only. The d comes in contact with the final 
letter of the original word, and the number of sylla- 
bles remains the same as it was before. 



122 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Most of the verbs that form the past tense by the ad- 
dition of the sound of the syllable ed are of French or 
Latin extraction. 

§ 258. Second Class. — To form the past tense of 
the second class of weak verbs, the sound of c^ or ^ is 
added to the present, and the vowel of the present 
(if long) is made short. 



feel 


felt 


flee fled 


deal 


dealt 


dream dreamt 


kneel 


knelt 


lean leant 


creep 


crept 


mean meant 


keep 


kept 


bereave bereft 


sleep 


slept 


cleave cleft 


sweep 


swept 


leave left 


weep 


wept 


hear heard 


lose 


lost 


leap leaped {pron. lept) 


shoe 


shod 


eat eat {pron. et). 



Note 1. Whenever the present ends in the sound of 
d or /, a second d or t cannot be added, for the reason 
given above. In this case the past tense is formed sim- 
ply by shortening the vowel of the present. 

Remark. — Such verbs as chide., ride^ slide.^ stride.^ 
hite., ivrite.^ smite., would appear to come under this 
rule, since they have such forms for the past tense as 
cliid., rid., slid., &c. But these are all strong verbs, 
with two forms for the past tense. See §§ 222, 225. 

breed bred 
feed fed 

lead led 



meet 

betide 

hide 

light 

shoot 

bleed 



met 

betid 

hid 

lit 

shot 

bled 



read 
speed 



read {pron. red) 
sped. 



VERBS. WEAK CONJUGATION. 



123 



Note 2. The present of some verbs ending in d has 
already a short vowel. As the termination d does not 
allow another cZ or ^ to be added ^ the past tense is formed 
in this case simply by changing the sound of d into 
that of t. 



bend 


bent 


wend 


went 


blend 


blent 


spend 


spent 


lend 


lent 


build 


built 


rend 


rent 


gild 


gilt 


send 


sent 


gird 


girt. 



Note 3. The present tense of some verbs both has a 
short vowel and already ends in the sound of t. In this 
case, the past tense has the same form as the present. 

cast 

cost 

cut 

hit 

hurt 

knit 

put 

quit 

Remark. — Let^ hurst ^ and slit are strong verbs, and 
do not come under the above rule. In like manner 
leat^ which has the same form for the present and the 
preterite, is a strong verb. Reference to the Anglo- 
Saxon will generally determine the conjugation in 
doubtful cases. 

Note 4. The following verbs ending in d^ and having 
a short vowel in the present, do not change the d into t 
in the past tense, but have the same form for both 
tenses. 



cast 


set 


set 


cost 


shut 


shut 


cut 


spit 


spit 


hit 


split 


split 


hurt 


sweat 


swet 


knit 


thrust 


thrust 


put 


wet 


wet 


quit 


wont 


wont. 



124 ETYMOLOGY. 



spread spread 

rid rid. 



shed shed 

shred shred 

bid bid 

§ 259. 1. The following preterites of the second 
class are remarkable ; viz. burnt, learned (pronounced 
lernt)^ spoilt, dealt, dreamed (pronounced dremt)^ felt, 
dwelt, knelt, meant, spelled (pronounced spelt) ^ spilled 
(pronounced spilt). In all these we find the sound ^, 
when, according to § 254. 2, we should expect that 
of d, 

2. The following are remarkable for another reason : 
left^ cleft^ bereft. They end in the sound of i, which 
is sharp. But according to § 254. 1, the addition after 
the sound v is d. Hence we should expect leaved^ 
cleaved^ bereaved^ and, indeed, the last form occurs. To 
form left, cleft, bereft, the v in the present is sharpened 
into/, and is then naturally followed by the sharp t, 

§ 260. Third Class. — In the third class of weak 
verbs the past tense is formed from the present by add- 
ing d or t, and by changing the vowel. 



tell told 

will would 



sell sold 

shall should. 



§ 261. Before we consider the other words of this 
class, it is necessary to be familiar with the following 
facts respecting the affinities of the sounds of g in gun 
and of k in kin ; inasmuch as, where any modification 
of these sounds occurs in verbs of the present division, 
the consonant is changed as well as the vowel. 

1. The sound of the k in kin is allied to the sound of 
the ch (tsh) in chest; that is, the sound of k has a ten- 
dency to change into that of tsh. In the words teach^ 



VERBS. — WEAK CONJUGATION. 125 

catch, beseech^ the last sound is that of tsh ; as teatsh^ 
catsh^ heseetsh. Now this sound originated in the sound 
of k. It can be shown from the comparison of lan- 
guages, that sounds like ka become, (1.) kya^ (2.) ksha^ 
(3.) tsha. Hence the words teach^ catchy and beseech 
are liable to the same changes as teak^ cak^ heseek^ would 
be liable to. 

2. The sounds of k (as in kin) and g (as in gun) are 
allied to each other. They are also allied to the same 
sounds, so that to all the changes whereto the sound of 
k is liable, the sound of g is liable also. 

3. The sounds of k and g^ as in brick and brig^ are 
allied to the sound of ng^ as in bring. 

4. The sounds of ^, g^ and ng^ allied to each other, 
are also allied to the sounds of h (in hot) and of y (in 
yet). Very often the h is sounded strongly and in the 
throat ; in which case it is still more akin to the sound 
of g (as in gun), 

5. The sounds of y {in yet) and h (in hot) have a 
great tendency to be softened in pronunciation, and af- 
terwards to be omitted altogether. 

Putting these facts together, we can understand how 
syllables that once contained the sounds of A:, g^ ng^ 
ngk^ tsh^ 2/, and h may gradually miss those sounds, 
having first changed them, and afterwards lose th^m 
altogether. 

§ 262. With these preliminaries, we can go through 
the details of the third division of weak verbs. 

1. Seek^ present ; sough-t^ preterite. The forms in 
Anglo-Saxon are sece^ s6h-te. The sound of the al- 
tered k preserved in the spelling gh, 

2. Teach^ present ; taugh-t^ preterite. The forms in 



126 ETYMOLOGY. 

Anglo-Saxon are tczce^ tcEh-te, The sound of the al- 
tered k preserved in the spelling gh, 

3. Reach. — The present preterite is reached (reat- 
sht)^ belonging to the first division of weak verbs. 
There is, however, the older preterite raugh-t^ formed 
in the same way as taugh-t. Anglo-Saxon race^ 
rceh'te. 

4. Beseech^ present ; hesough-t, preterite. Formed 
on the same principle as sough-t, 

5. Ca/cA, present ; cawgA-i, preterite. The sound of 
the altered k is still represented in the spelling gh. 

6. Brings present ; hrough-t, preterite. The altered 
sound of ng is represented in the spelling gh. The 
Anglo-Saxon forms were hringe^ hroh-te. 

7. Think ^ present ; though-t^ preterite. The altered 
sound of the ngk is exhibited in the spelling gh. The 
Anglo-Saxon forms were Ipence^ ]>6h-te. 

Observe. — The words think and thought^ in the sen- 
tences I think and / thought^ are of different origin 
from the words think and thought in methinks and me- 
thought. The Anglo-Saxon form of these latter words 
is 'pinc'^ and ])iihte. The word Ipincan in Anglo-Saxon 
meant, not to think^ but to seem. 

8. Work^ present ; work-ed^ and ivroiigh-t, preterite. 
The word wrough-t is formed on the same principle as 
sough-t^ except that, over and above the usual change, 
there is a transposition of the sound of the r. The 
Anglo-Saxon forms were wyrce^ worh-te. 

9. Oz^e,^ present ; ough-t^ preterite. The forms in 

^ As late as the time of Elizabeth we find owe used for own. The 
present form own seems to have arisen from the plural agon. Ought 



VERBS. WEAK CONJUGATION. 127 

Anglo-Saxon, dge^ dhte. In this case the original g is 
represented in the spelling only, and that by w in the 
present, and gh in the preterite tense. Owe is pro- 
nounced 0, and ougli't is pronounced aut. This change 
from the sound of g to that of w^ although not noticed 
above, is found in many words ; as, sorrow^ sorwe^ Old 
English ; sorge^ Danish ; sorg^ sorh^ Anglo-Saxon. 

10. Buy^ present; hough-t^ preterite. The original 
g is found in Anglo-Saxon, hycge^ hoh-te. 

§ 263. Peculiar Forms. — Made, had, — In these 
words there is nothing remarkable but the dropping of a 
consonant. The ancient forms were macode, and hcefde 
respectively. The c {k) and /have been ejected. 

Durst, must. — These words have the same form for 
all persons, and for both numbers and tenses. They 
have not yet been satisfactorily explained. 

Quoth. — The verb quoth is truly defective. It is 
hardly used, except in the third person singular of the 
preterite, and never used at all in the second person. 
It has the further peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. 
Instead of saying, he quoth, we say, quoth he. In An- 
glo-Saxon it was not defective. But although such 
forms as / queath, thou queathest, &;c., do not occur in 
the simple verb, yet they are found in the compound, 
I bequeath, thou hequeathest, &lc. 

Wist. — The preterite of wis, I know. The infini- 
tive of this verb is to wit, Anglo-Saxon witan. Besides 
these forms we have wot, corresponding to the Anglo- 
is the preterite of the Anglo-Saxon dge^ ah; owed, of the English 
owe. The word own, in the expression own to a thing, has an en- 
tirely different origin from own in / own a thing. It comes from 
the Anglo-Saxon an (plural, unnon) = I give, ov grant. 



128 ETYMOLOGY. 

Saxon wat^ know. Although this last word has the sig- 
nification of the present tense, it is in form a strong 
preterite. 

Worth. — In the following lines of Scott, the word 
worth = i5, and is a fragment of the regular Anglo- 
Saxon verb weor^an = to he^ or to hecome ; German, 
werden. 

" Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, 
That cost thy life, my gallant gray." 

Ladi/ of the Lake. 

Do. — In the phrase, this will do^ = this will answer 
the purpose^ the word do is wholly different from the 
word meaning to act. The inflection of the two words 
is different in Anglo-Saxon ; the infinitives are dugan 
and don respectively. Bid.^ the preterite of cZo, to act, 
is improperly used, by imitation, as the preterite of do 
= dugan. 

Do^ to act, has a participle of the strong form, done ; 
it is not yet satisfactorily made out whether the preterite 
did is strong or weak. 

Could. — This word is not formed from a pres- 
ent in Z, as it would seem from its resemblance to 
should and would (§ 260). It is the preterite of can., 
where no sound of I exists. As the Z is not pronounced, 
this form is an irregularity, not of language, but of 
orthography. 

§ 264. 1. Some verbs have two forms for the past 
tense, one in d, the other in t ; as. 

Present. Preterite, 

burn burned, burnt 

deal dealed, dealt 

dream dreamed, dreamt 



VERBS. WEAK CONJUGATION. 



129 



Present. 


Preterite. 


dwell 


dwelled, 


dwelt 


learn 


learned, 


learnt 


pen 


penned, 


pent 


smell 


smelled. 


smelt 


spell 


spelled. 


spelt 


spill 


spilled. 


spilt 


spoil 


spoiled. 


spoilt. 



The forms in t are perhaps preferable to those in d^ 
and indeed the latter are generally pronounced as if 
spelt with a t. See § 259. 1. 

2. Some verbs have two forms for the past tense, 
one in ed^ the other in t ; as. 



Present. 


Preterite. 


bend 


bended. 


bent 


blend 


blended. 


blent 


wend 


wended. 


went 


build 


builded. 


built 


gild 


gilded. 


gilt 


gird 


girded. 


girt 


knit 


knitted. 


knit 


light 


lighted. 


lit 


quit 


quitted. 


quit 


slit 


slitted. 


slit 


split 


splitted. 


split 


sweat 


sweated, 


swet 


wet 


wetted. 


wet 


bereave 


bereaved, bereft. 


, hetide^ 


hetided or hetid, 


. The forms in 



are preferable to those in ed, 

3. Some verbs have two forms for the past tense ; 
9 



130 



ETYMOLOGY. 



one strong, according to § 231, the other weak, ac- 
cording to § 251 ; as, 





Strong. 


Weak. 


awake 


awoke 


awaked 


cleave 


(stick) clave 


cleaved 


cleave 


{split) clove 


cleft 


climb 


*clomb 


climbed 


crow 


crew 


crowed 


delve 


'^dolve 


delved 


dig 


dug 


digged 


glide 


*glode 


glided 


grave 


* grove 


graved 


hang 


hung 


hanged 


heave 


hove 


heaved 


help 


*holp 


helped 


lade 


*lode 


laded 


melt 


*molt 


melted 


seethe 


*sod 


seethed 


shape 


*shope 


shaped 


shear 


* shore 


sheared 


shine 


shone 


shine d 


shrive 


shrove 


shrived 


slit 


slit 


slitted 


stave 


stove 


staved 


swell 


*swoll 


swelled 


thrive 


throve 


thrived 


wreak 


*wroke 


wreaked 



§ 265. Words like sang are called strong, because 
they are formed independently of any addition. Words 
like filled are called weak, because they require the 
addition of the sound of d. 



VERBS. 131 

f 

The number of words like climb and AeZp, that have 
both a strong and a weak form for their preterite, can 
be increased by looking either to the older forms of our 
language or to the provincial dialects, wherein these 
older forms are preserved. ^ It is thus that we dis- 
cover such forms as shope for shaped^ dolve for 
delved^ &c. 

Sometimes, in the present English, the preterite is 
weak, whilst the participle is strong ; as, show^ showed^ 
shown ; mow^ mowed^ mown. 

This shows that strong verbs have a tendency to be- 
come weak as the language grows modern. Some- 
times one of the forms alone {^preterite or participle) 
changes {mow^ mowed, mown). Sometimes both 
change, as snow^ snowed^ snowed {it snowed^ it has 
snowed). In the old language the forms were snow^ 
snew^ snown. 

Thus strong verbs become weak. On the other 
hand, there is, perhaps, no instance of a weak verb 
becoming strong. No word that once formed a pre- 
terite by the addition of cZ, if, or ecZ, now forms it by 
changing the vowel. 

Neither would any new verb introduced into the 
language form its preterite according to the strong 
conjugation. It would form it by the addition of cZ, 
i, or ed. 

Hence the strong process is an obsolete process. 
The current process is the one which gives the weak 
form. See § 133. 

^ See § 385 of the 3d ed. of the English Language, 



132 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 

§ 266. As a general rule, we find the participle in 
en whenever the preterite is strong ; indeed, the parti- 
ciple in en may be called the participle of the strong 
conjugation. But in mow^ mowed^ mown ; sow^ sowed^ 
sown^ and several other words, we find the participle 
strong and the preterite weak. 

In all words in. which the vowel of the plural an- 
ciently differed from that of the singular (§ 225) the 
participle takes the plural form ; as, drank^ drunk^ 
drunken ; write^ wrote^ written. 

In all words with a double form, as spake ^ spoke ^ 
clave^ clove^ the participle follows the form in o ; as, 
spoken., cloven. 

§ 267. In the older writers, and in works written, like 
Thomson's Castle of Indolence, in imitation of them, 
we find prefixed to the past participle the letter i/, as 
yclept = called ; yclad = clothed. This y grew out of 
an older form ge^ the precise power of which is on 
the whole not satisfactorily determined. 

§ 268. Forlorn. — This is a participle formed from 
the verb lose^ the s being changed into r. The same 
change takes place in the words rear and raise. In the 
Anglo-Saxon the change from 5 to r was less limited. 



ceose. 


I choose ; 


} 


curon. 


we chose ; 


ceas, 


I chose. 


gecoren, 


chosen. 


forleose, 


I lose ; 


} 


forluron. 


we lost ; 


forleas 


I lost. 


forloren. 


lost. 


hreose, 


I rush ; 


\ 


hruron, 


we rushed ; 


hreas, 


I rushed. 


gehroren, 


rushed. 



PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 133 

In Milton we find : 

" The piercing air 
Burns frore^ and cold performs the effect of fire." 

Paradise Lost. 

The word frore is from the Anglo-Saxon gefroven = 
frozen, 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

§ 269. The present participle is formed from the 
present tense of verbs, by adding ing, A mute vowel 
at the end of the verb is omitted in the participle. 

§ 270. The present participle is used in many lan- 
guages as a substantive. But it is generally stated that 
the use of this participle as a substantive is more fre- 
quent in English than elsewhere, and that it is used in 
several cases and in both numbers ; e. g. 

Rising early is healthy. 

This is the advantage of rising early. 

The risings in the North, &c. 

According to some philologists, the ing in words like 
rising is not the ing of the present participle. It is 
rather the ing in words like cleansing.^ which has orig- 
inated in the Anglo-Saxon substantival termination ung 
[clcensung). 

Now, whatever may be the theory of the origin of 
the termination ing in old phrases like rising early is 
healthy^ it cannot apply to expressions of recent intro- 
duction, such as affirming is not proving. Here the 
direct origin in urig is out of the question. 

The view, then, that remains to be taken of the forms 
in question is this : — 



134 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. That the older forms in ing are substantival in 
origin, and are derived from Anglo-Saxon forms in ung, 

2. That the later ones are participial, and have been 
formed by imitation, on a false analogy. 

ADVERBS. 

§ 271. The reader is referred to §§ 96, 97, 98, 99, 
and more especially to § 102. Besides this, he is rec- 
ommended to make himself again familiar with the 
structure of propositions. (See § 88, &c.) 

Take three words and form a proposition ; as, summer 
is pleasant. Prefix to the word summer any word from 
amongst the following : cheerfully^ warmly, brightly^ 
mildly. Ask what sort of sense is made by the com- 
bination. The answer will be that, whether we say, 
cheerfully summer is pleasant, or summer cheerfully is 
pleasant, we can only get a meaning by taking the 
word cheerfully along with the word pleasant ; in other 
words, that, although we may talk of cheerful summer^ 
we cannot talk of cheerfully summer. Now, what ap- 
plies to summer applies to a vast number of other 
words. 

1. In the first place, they cannot form by themselves 
the subjects of propositions ; since we cannot say, cheer- 
fully is pleasant, or cheerfully is summer. 

2. Neither can they form by themselves the pred- 
icates of propositions ; since we cannot say, summer is 
cheerfully. 

3. Nor yet can they form the copulas of proposi- 
tions; since we cannot say, summer cheerfully pleasant. 

4. Nor yet can they form the copula and predicate 
at once, as is done by the words quoted in § 99 ; we 



ADVERBS. 135 

cannot say, summer cheerfully^ in the way we say, sum- 
mer cheers. 

Speaking generally, they cannot constitute hy them- 
selves any of the parts of a proposition. 

Although they cannot do this, they can, however, 
combine with certain words which can constitute some 
of the parts of a proposition, and so form subordinate 
parts of subjects and predicates. 

The class of words with which words like cheerfully 
combine are the adjectives (§§ 94, 106). We can say, 
summer is cheerfully pleasant^ summer is ardently hot^ 
man is certainly mortal^ John is tolerably good^ James 
is exceedingly had^ this is enormously hig^ that is con- 
temptibly little^ &;c. 

They also combine with participles (see §§ 205, 206, 
207, 208, and also the words in the third column of 
the list under § 94). He is hunting eagerly, we are* 
fishing earnestly, they are shooting continually, the 
sun is shining brightly, the wife is weeping immod- 
erately, &c. 

By referring to §§ 96, 97, 98, we shall see that in 
every verb there is contained either an adjective or a 
participle. Now, words like cheerfully can combine 
with verbs. This they do on the strength of the ad- 
jective or participle- involved in the verb : John eats 
heartily, James drinks deeply, he speaks loudly, she 
breathes difficultly, he lives piously, he died calmly, he 
fears exceedingly, &;c. 

As it is generally with the verb that words like 
cheerfully are combined, they are called Adverbs, 

An adverb is a word that enters into a proposi- 
tion only when combined with an adjective, a partici- 
ple, or a verb ; as. 



once 


never 


twice 


ever 


thrice 


yet 


now 


here 


then 


there 



136 ETYMOLOGY. 

Man is certainly mortal. 
John is certainly riding, 
John certainly rides, 

§ 272. The following words, along with many oth- 
ers, are adverbs : — 

badly 
well 
much 
truly 
brightly, &c. 

§ 273. Words, originally nouns, are capable of being 
used in an adverbial sense ; as, seldom^ unawares^ &c. 

Combinations of words are capable of being used 
in an adverbial sense; as, to-day^ yester-day^ now-a- 
days^ not-at-all^ &c. 

■ Adjectives are, above all other parts of speech, used 
in an adverbial sense, and that not only in English, 
but in most other languages ; as, well^ better, ill, worse, 
and all the words ending in ly {hright-ly, hrave-ly). 

In expressions like the sun shines bright, the word 
bright, an adjective, is equivalent in meaning to the ad- 
verb brightly. In English there is with adjectives no 
distinction of gender; if there were, bright and words 
like it (used adverbially) would be. neuters. 

§ 274. Adverbs are susceptible of the degrees of 
comparison. This takes place in three manners : — 

1. By adding er or est to the adverb ; as, bright-ly, 
bright'li-er , bright-li-est ; tight-ly, tight-li-er, tight- 
li-est. 

2. By taking the comparative or superlative form of 
an adjective and using it adverbially ; as, the sun shines 



COMPOSITION. 137 

hrigJiter to-day than it did yesterday^ and prohahly it 
will shine brightest to-morrow, 

3. By prefixing the word more ; as, the sun shines 
more brightly than it did yesterday^ and will prohahly 
shine most brightly to-morrow. 

Of these three methods of denoting the degrees of 
comparison of adverbs, the last is most used by the 
best authorities. 

*- 

COMPOSITION. 

Composition is the joining together, in language^ of 
two different words^ and treating the combination as a 
single term, 

§ 275. The word day-light is a compound word. If 
we take away from it the word day^ the word light still 
remains a whole word. Or if we take away from it 
the word lights the word day still remains a whole 
word. Hence, in the compound word day-light we 
have two whole words put together. Composition is 
the putting together of two whole words so as to 
form one. 

§ 276. By attending to the following sections, we 
shall see in what way the different parts of speech are 
capable of being put together by composition. 

Substantives preceded by Substantives. — A large and 
important class. Day-star^ morning-star^ evening-star^ 
land-slip^ watch-house^ light-house^ rose-tree^ oak-tree, 
fir-tree, harvest-time, goose-grass, sea-man, collar-bone, 
shoulder-blade, ground-nut, earth-nut, hazel-nut, fire- 
wood, sun-light, moon-light, star-light, torch-light, &;c. 
In each of these compounds it is the second word which 
is qualified or defined by the first, and not the first which 
is qualified or defined by the second. 



138 ETYMOLOGY. 

Substantives preceded hy Adjectives, — (1.) Proper 
Names : Good-man^ New-man^ North-humherland^ South- 
hampton. (2.) Common Names : Blind-worm^ free- 
man^ free-thinker^ half-penny^ grey-heard^ green-sward, 
white-thorn^ hlack-thorn^ mid-day^ mid-summer^ quick* 
silver^ holy -day ^ &;c. 

Substantives preceded by Verbs, — Turn- spit,, spit- 
fir e,, dare- devil y whet-stone,, kill- cow,, sing-song,, turn- 
coat,, &c. 

Substantives preceded by the Participle Present, — 
Turning-lathe,, sawing-mill. 

Adjectives preceded by Substantives. — Sinful, thank- 
ful, and other words ending in ful. Blood-red, eye- 
bright, coal-black, snow-white, nut-brown, heart-whole, 
ice-cold, foot-sore, &c. 

Adjectives preceded by Adjectives, — All-wise, two- 
fold, many-fold, &c. 

Adjectives preceded by Verbs, — Stand-still, live- 
long. Very rare. 

Verbs preceded by Substantives. — God-send. Rare, 
and doubtful. 

Verbs preceded by Adjectives. — Little-heed, rough- 
hew. Rare and doubtful. 

Verbs preceded- by Verbs. — Hear-say. Rare. 

Present Participles preceded by Adjectives. — All- 
seeing, all-ruling, soft-flowing, fast-sailing, merry- 
making. 

Past Participles of the Strong Form preceded by an 
Adjective. — New-born, free-spoken. 

Present Participles preceded by Substantives, — 
Fruit-bearing, music-making. 

Past Participles of the Strong Form preceded by 
Substantives. — Heaven-born, bed-ridden. 



COMPOSITION. 139 

Past Participles of the Weak Form preceded hy 
Substantives. — Blood-stained. 

Past Participles of the Weak Form preceded hy an 
Adjective. — Dear-hought^ fresh-made^ new-made^ new- 
laid. 

Verbal Substantives preceded by Substantives. — 
Man-eater^ woman-eater^ horn-blower. Numerous. 

Verbal Adjectives preceded by Substantives. — Mop- 
headed^ chicken-hearted. 

Verbal Adjectives preceded by Adjectives. — Cold- 
hearted^ flaxen-haired^ hot-headed^ curly-pated. 

§ 277. Adverbs entering into composition are of 
two sorts : — 

1st. Those that can be separated from the word with . 
which they combine, and nevertheless appear as inde- 
pendent words ; as, over, under, well, &;c. These are 
called Separable Adverbs. 

2d. Those that, when they are separated from the 
verb with which they combine, have no independent 
existence as separate words ; e. g. the syllable un in 
unloose. These are called Inseparable Adverbs. 

§ 278. Words preceded by Separable Adverbs. — 
Over-do, under-go, well-beloved, &;c. Numerous. 

§ 279. Words preceded by the Inseparable Adverb 
be. — Be-hove, be-fit, he-seem, be-lieve, be-lie, bespatter, 
besmear, be-get, be-labor, be-do, be-gin {on-ginnan in 
Anglo-Saxon), be-gird, be-hold, be-mourn, be-reave, be- 
deck, be-think, be-mire, be-rhyme. The forms through- 
out the allied languages are generally bi or be. 

§ 280. Words formed by the Inseparable Adverb 
un. — Un-bind, un-do, un-loose, un-lock, un-wind. The 
forms of the Inseparable in the different allied Ian- 



140 ETYMOLOGY. 

guages are, in Moeso-Gothic, and ; in Old High German, 
ind^ int^ in ; in Old Saxon, ant ; in Middle and New 
High German, ent; in Anglo-Saxon, on; as, on-hindan 
(un-hind)^ on-don {un-do)^ onlijsan {un-loose)^ on-lucan 
(uU'lock)^ on-windan {iin-ioind). 

§ 281. Words formed hy the Inseparahle Adverb 
a. — A-light^ a-rouse^ a-rise^ a-ivake^ a-wak-en^ a-het^ 
a-hide. The forms of this Inseparable, different in 
different allied languages, are, in Moeso-Gothic, us ; 
in Old High German, wr, ar, iV, er, er ; in Old Saxon 
and in Anglo-Saxon, a ; as, a-risan [a-rise)^ a-weccan 
(a-wake). 

§ 282. Words formed hy the Inseparahle Adverb 
,for. — For-get^ for-do, fore-go^ for-give^ for-hid^ for- 
bear^ forswear. The for here is of a different origin, 
and different in meaning and power, from the fore in 
words like fore-tell. In different allied languages it 
takes different forms. In Moeso-Gothic, fair^ faur^ 
fra. In Old High German, far^ fer^ fir,, for. In 
Middle and New High German, ver. In Anglo-Sax- 
on, for. 

DERIVATION. 

§ 283. Derivation is the tracing of a word from its 
original. In the wide sense of the word, the cases, 
numbers, and genders of nouns, the persons, moods, 
and tenses of verbs, the ordinal numbers, the degrees 
of comparison, and even compound words, are alike 
matters of derivation. 

Derivation proper comprises all the changes that 
ivords undergo which are not referable to some of the 
preceding heads. 



DERIVATION. 141 

§ 284. Derivation ly Means of the Addition of a 
Vowel, — The only vowel sound that in English con- 
stitutes by itself a form of derivation is that of the ee 
in feet,, expressed for the most part by the letter y.^ It 
occurs with two very distinct powers. 

1. As a Diminutive ; hahe,, hal-y. In Lowland 
Scotch it is far more common, and is spelt ie ; as, 
dogg-ie^ lass-ie^ ladd-ie, mous-ie, wifie^ = little (or 
dear) dog^ lass^ lad^ mouse,, wife. In the word hahy its 
power as a diminutive is obsolete. 

2. After certain words ending in r ; as, fsh-er-y^ 
rook-er-y^ hrav-er-y^ fool-er-y^ prud-er-y^ slav-er-y^ 
witch-er-yy nurs-er-y^ stitch-er-y^ and a few others. 
Respecting these words it must be remembered, — 

a. That they are Double Derivatives. 

h. That the r is probably the same as the r in chil^ 
dren. See § 131. 

c. That the vowel sound is not of Saxon, or even 
Gothic origin. It originates from the y in words like 
astronom-y ,, histor-y^ prophec-y^ necromanc-y^ &c., all 
of which are words derived, not from any Gothic lan- 
guage, but from the Latin or Greek. The original 
form of these endings was ia; as, astronom-i-a^ Ms- 
tor -i-a^ &;c. Hence words like fsh-er-y^ &c., are im- 
properly formed. 

§ 285. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Liquid L. — 1. Substantives. — Gird4e^ kern-el, 

2. Adjectives, — Litt-le^ mick-le, 

3. Verbs, — Spark-le. 

§ 286. Derivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Liquid R. — Substantives, — Words that in Anglo-Saxon 

^ The y in words like might-y originated in ig ; as miht-ig^ A. S. 



142 ETYMOLOGY. 

ended in er, and were (or would have been) of the 
masculine gender : — laugh-t-er^ slaugh-t-er. 

Words that in Anglo-Saxon ended in er, and were 
(or would have been) of the neuter gender : — lay-er^ 
lai-r (Anglo-Saxon Iceg-er)^ fodd-er (from the root 
of feed). 

Substantives that in Anglo-Saxon ended in ere, and 
were (or would have been) of the masculine gender. — 
These form a numerous and important class. They 
are almost all the names of agents, and if we subtract 
from almost any of them the ending er, the remainder 
is either a verb or a word that can be used as such ; 
e. g. a hak-er perform the act of bakings and, as such, 
is an agent (or one who acts or does), so that the word 
hak-er is the name of an agent. Subtract er, and the 
remainder is hake^ a word that can be used as a 
verb, e. g. to hake^ I hake^ &c. — Read-er^ sinn-er^ 
harp-er^ full-er., hegg-er (or hegg-ar)^ hunt-er^ lend-er^ 
horrow-er^f reap-er, mow-er^ sow-er^ plough-er, fish-er^ 
deal-er^ wander-er^ writ-er^ lead-er^ steer-er^ look-er^ 
heal-er^ cohhl-er^ robb-er, teacJi-er^ help-er^ los-er, 
hear-er^ buy-er^ selher^ shap-er^ leap-er^ runn-er^ walk- 
er^ jump-er^ murder-er^ slaughter-er^ Jiddl-er^ giv-er^ 
toork-er^ rid-er^ kill-er^ slay-er^ slumber-er^ sleep-er^ 
keep-er^ dream-er, teach-er^ tell-er^ bak-er^ brew-er^ 
thatch-er^ weav-er^ spinn-er, wait-er, eat-er^ drink-er, 
din-er^ rov-er^ lov-er^ mov-er^ jiatter-er^ mill-er^ glov- 
er^ hatt-er. 

Substantives that in Anglo-Saxon ended in ra, and 
were (or would have been) masculine : — gander (An- 
glo-Saxon gand-ra). 

Verbs. — Hind-er^ low-er. 



DERIVATION. 143 

<J 287. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Liquid N. — Substantives, — Maid-en^ gamm-on [game)^ 
mai-n (as in might and main). That the n is no part 
of the original word in mai-n ^ we see from the word 
may. The idea in both may and mai-n is that of 
power. 

Adjectives. — 1. Words where the n is preceded in 
the Old High German and the Old Saxon by a = aw ; 
e. g. eik-an (own)^ Old High German ; eg-an (own)^ 
Old Saxon : — ow-n^ op-en. 

2. Words where the n is preceded in Moeso-Gothic 
by ei, in Old High German by i, and in Old Saxon 
by i ; e. g. ^aurn-ein-s {thorny).^ Moeso-Gothic ; trd-in 
(earthen)^ Old High German ; hom-in {woody ^ i. e. made 
of beams) ^ Old Saxon. Words of this sort express in 
English the circumstance of the object to which they 
are applied being made of the material of which the 
radical part of the derivative is the name : thus, gold- 
en is a derivative from gold ; gold is the radical part 
of the derivative gold-en ; the radical word gold is the 
name of a material of which certain objects (such as 
guineas^ &^c.) may be made. When we say golden 
guinea^ we apply the word golden to the object guinea^ 
and express the circumstance of guineas being made 
of gold^ or (in other words) of that material of which 
gold (the radical part of the derivative word gold-en) is 
the name. — Oak-en^ ash-en^ beech-en^ braz-en^ fax-en^ 
gold-en^ lead-en^ silk-en^ wood-en^ wooll-en, twigg-en 
(obsolete), hemp-en^ wheat-en^ oat-en^ wax-en. 

§ 288. Derivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Sound of the Vowel O, originating in ow or ov, and 
spelt in the present English ow. — Although it is proper 



144 ETYMOLOGY. 

in all cases of grammar to consider the sound rather 
than the spelling of words, the derivatives in question 
are fitly placed in the present section. By comparison 
with shade and mead, the forms shad-ow and mead-ow 
are shown to be derivative ; whilst the following forms 
prove that the ow, although now sounded as the vowel 
{shadd'O, medd-o), originated in w or v ; skad-v-j-an 
= to sha-dow, Moeso-Gothic ; scead-uw-es = shadow''s, 
Anglo-Saxon ; scead-ew-an = to sha-dow, Anglo-Saxon. 

§ 289. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Mute Consonant T. — 1. Substantives. — Words which 
in Anglo-Saxon ended in t : — gift, shrift, theft, weft 
{weave), rift, drift, thrift, fros-t [freeze), gris-t 
(grind), fligh-t, sigh-t, draugh-t (draw), loeigh-t. 

2. Words which in Anglo-Saxon ended in ta. The 
compounds of the word wright (from the root work) ; 
such as cart'Wrigh-t, wheehwrigh-t, mill-wrigh-t, &;c. 

Adjective. — Tigh-t [tie). 

§ 290. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Mute Consonant D. — Substantives. — Bran-d (hurn^ 
brenn, obsolete), floo-d (flow), mai-d {may in Lowland 
Scotch), see-d {sow), bur-d-en {bear). 

Adjectives. — Dea-d {die), col-d {cool). In the word 
thir-d, from three, the d stands for th (as in fifth, &c.), 
in order to avoid the occurrence of the sound of th 
twice within the same syllable. 

§ 291. Derivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Mute Consonant TH (Anglo-Saxon ]t) as sounded in 
thin. — Substantives. — The following words ending 
in th are the names of abstract ideas ; dea-th, bir-th 
(bear), heal-th, leng-th, bread-th, heigh-th, dep-th^ 
mir-th^ tru-th {trow, Lowland Scotch), weal-th, fil-th^ 



DERIVATION. 145 

til-th {tillage^ or tilled ground)^ ki-th (as in the phrase 
kith and kin). 

Adjectives. — The syllable cou-th in the compound 
word un-cou-th. This word originally meant unknown^ 
originating in the word ken = to know. This we see 
from the following forms : A:ww-J>-5, in the Moeso-Gothic, 
and chun-t^ in the Old High German, signifying known 
{kenned). 

§ 292. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Mute Consonant TH (Anglo-Saxon ^) as sounded in 
thine. — Bur-th-en^ derived from hear. 

§ 293. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Sound of the Mute Consonant S, sounded as in sin. — 
Suhstantives. -— In the word goose (goo-se) the 5 is no 
part of the original word, in which also an n and a 
d have been lost. Compare the German word gan-s 
and the English word gand-er. The s in goo-se is de- 
rivative. 

§ 294. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Sound of the Z in zeal and the S in flags (flagz). — 
Verhs. — Cleanse (clenz)^ from clean. In Anglo-Saxon 
clcen-s-i-an. 

§ 295. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Mute Letter K. — Hill-ock. 

§ 296. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Sound of the Vowel E [as in feet), originating in ig, 
and spelt in the present English y. — All the derivative 
adjectives that now end in y ended in Anglo-Saxon in 
ig ; as, hlood-y^ craft-y^ drear-y^ might-y.^ mist-y^ mood-y^ 
merr-y^ worth-y^ of which the Anglo-Saxon forms were 
hl6d-ig, crmft-ig.^ dreor-ig^ miht-ig^ fnist-ig^ mod-ig^ 
myr-igy worth-ig. Although it is proper in all cases 
10 



146 ETYMOLOGY. 

of grammar to consider the sound rather than the spell- 
ing of words, the derivatives in question are more fitly 
placed in the present section than elsewhere. 

§ 297. Derivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Syllahle ing. — Farth-ing (^), rid-ing^ ( -J, a corruption 
from thrith'ing). Also, clean-s-ing^ dawn-ing^ morn-ing. 
In these words the iiig was originally ung ; as, clcen-S' 
ung^ dag-ungj Anglo-Saxon. It is clear that forms like 
cleansing^ from the Anglo-Saxon dcens-ung^ are differ- 
ent in origin from the participles in ing^ as cleans-ing. 
See § 269. 

§ 298. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Syllable 1-ing. — Gos-l-ing (little goose)^ duck-l-ing 
{little duck)^ dar-l-ing {little dear)^ hire-l-ing^ found- 
l-ing^fond'l-ing^ nest-l-ing^ &c. The words of this class 
are generally diminutives, or words expressive of small- 
ness. The word diminutive is derived from the Latin 
w^ord diminuo = to diminish. 

§ 299. Derivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Syllable kin. — Lamb-kin {little lamb)^ mann-i-kin {little 
man). Words ending in kin are chiefly diminutives. 

§ 300. Derivatiori by Means of the Addition of the 
Syllable rel. — Cock-erel {little cock) ^ pick- er el {little 
pike). Diminutives. 

§ 301. Derivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Syllable ard. — Drunk-ard^ stink-ard. 

§ 302. Derivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Syllable old. — Thresh-old. 

§ 303. Der^ivation by Means of the Addition of the 
Syllable em. — East-em.^ west-em., north-em., south-em, 

^ As the three ridings of Yorkshire. 



DERIVATION. 147 

§ 304. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Syllahle ish. — Child-ish^ Engl-ish^ selfish^ whit-ish. 
This class comprises several adjectives. It must not be 
thought that the forms in ish are examples of the sound 
of the sh in shine being used in derivation ; since the 
original form was isk ; cild-isc (child-ish)^ Engl-isc 
(English)^ Anglo-Saxon. This softening down of the 
sound of sk (or sc) into that of the sh in shine occurs 
in many languages. 

§ 305. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Syllahle ness. — Good-ness^ had-ness, wicked-ness^ bright- 
ness^ dark-ness^ weari-ness^ dreari-ness^ &c. These 
form a numerous and important class. The fact to be 
here noticed is, that the n is, most probably, no part 
of the original form. This was simply ^55, or uss ; 
and hence the proper way of showing the structure 
of the words in question is to write them as follows : — 
good-n-ess^ had-n-ess^ dark-n-ess^ &c. The origin of 
the n has not been satisfactorily determined. 

. § 306. Derivation hy Means of the Addition of the 
Syllahle ster. — Songster^ punster. Originally words 
in str were limited to the names of females, and were 
opposed to the substantives in er (§ 286), the names of 
male agents. Thus, in Anglo-Saxon, 



sangere, a male singer " 
bsecere, a male baker 
fidelere, a male fiddler 
webbere, a male weaver 
rsedere, a male reader 
seamere, a male seamer 



fssengestre, a female singer, 
bsecestre, a female baker, 
fidelestre, a female fiddler, 
webbestre, a female weaver, 
rsedestre, a female reader, 
seamestre, a female seamer 
(or seamstress). 



148 ETYMOLOGY. 

The single word spinster still retains its feminine 
force. 

<^ 307. Derivation hy Means of Changing the Sound 
of a Consonant. — Price, prize ; cZoth, clothe ; ^ wse, use 
(pronounced uze) ; grass, graze ; grease (pronounced 
greace)^ grease (pronounced greaze). In each of the 
pairs of words given above, the former is a substantive 
and the latter a verb. 

The verb is formed from the substantive by changing 
the sharp mute into its corresponding flat one. 

§ 308. Derivation hy Means of Changing the Sound 
of a Vowel, — Rise^ raise ; lie^ lay ; fall^ fell; sit^ set* 
The generality of these words are verbs. There are, 
however, a few nouns ; as, top., tip ; cat^ kit. 

§ 309. Derivation hy Means of Transposing the Ac- 
cent. — See § 54. This takes place only with words 
not of Anglo-Saxon origin. 

§ 310. Certain words have the appearance of being 
derived when they are really compound. This takes 
place when they alter in form, and no longer look like 
original, independent words. The adjectives and ad- 
verbs ending in ly are of this kind ; such as man-ly\, 
hright'ly. In the present language the syllable ly has 
not, by itself, any meaning at all, and consequently is 
no separate, independent word. Originally, however, 
it was a separate and independent word ; in Anglo- 
Saxon lie, in Old High German ZzA, in Moeso-Gothic 
leiks. In other words it was neither more nor less than 
the word like. 

The same is the case with words ending in ric (as 

^ Pronounced clodhe. 



DERIVATION. 149 

htshop-ric)^ with words ending in ship {diS friend- ship) ^ 
with words ending in hood (as man-hood)^ and with 
words ending or beginning with mis or miss (as a-miss^ 
mis-take)^ and with several others. In some older stages 
of language the words ric^ ship^ hood^ mis- (or -miss)^ 
were separate, independent words, with separate, inde- 
pendent meanings. The precise meaning, however, is 
not always easily ascertained. 

§ 311. In words like command-ment^ us-age^ penetr- 
able^ the syllables ment^ age^ and able are so many in- 
stances of derivation. The same is the case with words 
like act-or and actr-ess^ &c. Now, respecting these 
endings, it must be remarked that they were unknown 
in Anglo-Saxon, and that they were also unknown in 
the earlier stages of all the allied languages. Their 
origin was from some language foreign to the original 
English. Some were introduced from the Latin, others 
from the French. 

Now it is not proper to fix any foreign termination to 
a word of English, Anglo-Saxon, or Gothic extraction. 
If we do so, there are two languages in one word. In 
this respect, however, the best authors have occasion- 
ally erred ; so that several words formed by an inter- 
mixture of languages are current in the present Eng- 
lish. The word shepherd is of Gothic origin ; the syl- 
lable ess (as in the sign of the feminine gender) is of 
French origin. Hence the word shepherd-ess is not 
wholly unexceptionable. We can say tigr-ess = a fe- 
male tiger ^ but not fox-ess =^ a female fox. The rea- 
son of this is, because in tigr-ess both syllables are of 
French (or Latin) origin ; whilst in fox-ess the first is 
Anglo-Saxon, the second French. 



PART IV. 

SYNTAX. 

§ 312. The word Syntax is derived from the Greek 
words syn {with or together) and ^00:1*5 {arrangement). 
It relates to the arrangement or putting together of 
words. Etymology deals with the forms of single 
words ; Syntax, with the combination of more words 
than one, with the view of expressing a meaning, or 
forming sense. The chief points in syntax are Con- 
cord and Government, words which will be explained 
within a few sections. 

§ 313. Syntax of Substantives. — The chief point to 
be noticed under this head is the use of the Infinitive 
Verh as a Substantive, 

In the line, 

To err is human, to forgive divine, 

the infinitive verb to err is equivalent in sense to the 
substantive error ; whilst the infinitive verb to forgive 
is equivalent to the subsiwciiiYe forgiveness. The whole 
sentence is equivalent to Error is human .^ forgiveness 
divine. This use of the infinitive verb for a substan- 
tive is common in the Latin, the Greek, and in all the 
Gothic languages, with the exception of the Old Norse 
and the Moeso- Gothic. 

^ 314. Use of the Present Participle as a Suhstau' 
tive. — The sentence. Erring is human^ forgiving is 



SUBSTANTIVES. 151 

divine^ is equivalent to Error is liuman^ forgiveness is 
divine. In this case the present participles erring and 
forgiving are equivalent to the substantives error and 
forgiveness. This use of the present participle as a 
substantive is less general in other languages than the 
similar use of the infinitive verb. 

§ 315. Other parts of speech are also used occasion- 
ally as substantives. In the sentence, the Macks of 
Africa^ the word Macks is used as a substantive, as is 
obvious from its taking the plural form. In the sen- 
tence, the Mind lead the Mind, the word Mifid is not 
used as a substantive, as is evident from its not taking 
the plural form. 

Again, in phrases like ifs and ans, one Jong now, &c., 
the words if an, and now, originally conjunctions and 
adverbs, are used as substantives. If and an are equiv- 
alent to some such combinations as cases of douht eX' 
pressed hy if and an, where the sense is that of a sub- 
stantive ; whilst now is equivalent to some such com- 
bination as the present time, where the sense is also 
that of a substantive. These last-named modes of ex- 
pression should be used rarely, and only with the sanc- 
tion of the best writers. 

§ 316. Apposition. — In the expression, George, King 
of England, the words King and George are said to 
be in apposition with each other. In expressions like 
this we must remark three things : — 

1. That the substantives in apposition with each other 
are in the same case. The words King and George 
are both nominatives. 

2. That they express the same thing. The word 
George, applied to that particular monarch, means the 



152 SYNTAX. 

same thing as the King of England, and the words 
K^ing of England applied to the same monarch mean 
the same thing as George, 

3. That words in apposition explain each other. If 
we say simply the King of England, we do not suffi- 
ciently explain ourselves ; since we may mean a Hen- 
ry, an Edward, or a William. And if we say simply 
George, we do not sufficiently explain ourselves ; since 
we may mean any person in the world whose name is 
George. But if we say, George, King of England, we 
explain what King and what George is meant. Hence 
the two substantives King and George explain each 
other. 

Words that thus explain each other, mean the same 
thing, and are in the same case, may be said to be 
placed alongside of each other, or to be in apposition. 
The Latin word appositio means putting hy the side of 
The following are specimens of apposition : — 

Solomon, the son of David. 

CrcBsus, King of Lydia. 

The hrave man, Leonidas. 

The capital of England, London. 

Content, the source of happiness. 

John'^s the farmer''s wife. 

Oliver'^s the spy''s evidence. 

For words to be in apposition with each other, they 
must be in the same case. 

§ 317. In phrases like those exhibited in § 316, which 
were instances of apposition, the two substantives that 
were placed together (as content and source of happi- 
ness) were names for the same thing. 

Two substantives, however, may be placed together, 



SUBSTANTIVES. 153 

being names for different things, and therefore not in 
apposition ; as in phrases like the father'^s son^ the son 
of the father ; the children'^s hread^ the hread of the 
childreji. In these cases the word hread does not 
mean the same thing as the word children ; neither 
are the words father and son different names for the 
same object. 

When two substantives meaning different things are 
connected together in the same term, one is said to be 
govei^ned by the other, or to be in a state of govern- 
ment. The words children'' s and father'^s are governed 
by the words Iread and son respectively. 

Of two substantives thus placed together, the one 
that is governed by the other is always in the posses- 
sive case : the man'^s hat ; the tvoman''s ring ; the hoy'^s 
horse^ &c. ; where man''s^ ivoman'^s^ and hoy'^s are pos- 
sessive cases, governed by the words hat^ ring^ and 
horse respectively. 

In phrases like the hat of the hoy^ the word hoy is 
governed by the preposition of and is in the objective 
case. 

As the particular case in which a word stands de- 
pends upon the words that are taken along with it, the 
word government is not ill chosen as the name for the 
dependence of one word upon another. 

As different parts of speech require the words taken 
along with them to be in different cases, they may be 
said to govern different cases ; thus, a substantive gov- 
erns one case, verbs and prepositions another. The 
substantive, as stated above, governs the possessive case. 

§ 318. Sometimes two or three words in a state of 
government may be dealt with as a single word. This 



154 SYNTAX. 

we shall understand by attending to the nature of the 
following expression : the King of Saxony'' s army. In 
this expression three things are very evident. 

1. That the army is spoken of as belonging, not to 
the countiy Saxony^ but to the king of that country. 

2. That the sign of the possessive case naturally 
comes after the word king ; as tlie king''s army. 

3. That, as the expression stands, the army appears 
to be spoken of as belonging to Saxony. 

Yet this is not really the fact. The truth is, that the 
whole expression is dealt with as a single word. 

^ 319. Ellipsis. — Sometimes a possessive case 
stands alone, without any substantive to govern it. In 
this case the governing substantive is said to be under- 
stood ; that is, the hearer is supposed to understand 
what is meant, without the sentence being expressed m 
full. Sentences of this sort are said to be elliptical., or 
to exhibit an ellipsis. The word ellipsis is derived from 
the Greek word elleipein = to fall short of. The fol- 
lowing are examples of ellipsis. 

1. This was taught at Rundell and Bridgets. Un- 
derstand shop. 

2. I am going to St. PauVs. Understand cathedral., 
or some such word. 

§ 320. Pleonasm. — This word, derived from the 
Greek word pleonazein = to he in excess., is the oppo- 
site of ellipsis. Pleonasm is exemplified in § 333. 

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 321. As the adjectives are destitute of gender, 
case, and number, and always appear in the same form 
(a good man., a good woman., good things)., their syntax 
is limited. ' 



, ADJECTIVES. 155 

§ 322. The positive degree preceded by more and 
most is equivalent to the comparative and superlative 
forms in er and est respectively. 

When the adjective is both monosyllabic and of 
Anglo-Saxon origin, there is no doubt that the prefer- 
ence is to be given to the form in er. Thus, wiser is 
preferable to more wise. When, however, the adjec- 
tive is compound, or trisyllabic, the combination of the 
positive degree with more is preferable. 

Some dissyllabic adjectives form their degrees in er 
and est.) some with mor-e and most., and some in both 
ways indifferently. Whether one form shall be used 
in preference to the other depends upon the nature of 
the particular word. 

§ 323. In the comparative degree we occasionally 
find, even in good writers, besides the syllable er, the 
word more ; as, the more serener spirit. Expressions 
like these are pleonastic, since the word more is a su- 
perfluity. 

§ 324. In the superlative degree we occasionally 
find, even in good writers, besides the syllable est.^ the 
word most ; as, the most straitest sect. Expressions 
like these are pleonastic, since the word most is a su- 
perfluity. 

^ 325. It is better, in speaking of only two objects, 
to use the comparative degree rather than the superla- 
tive, even where we use the article the> This is the 
better of the two^ is preferable to this is the best of 
the two. 

^ 326. The adjective like governs a case, and it is 
the only adjective that does so. When we say this is 
good for John^ the government proceeds not from the 



156 SYNTAX. 

adjective good^ but from the preposition /or. The word 
like^ however, really governs a case. We do not say, 
this is like to me, but this is like me ; this is like him ; 
this is like them^ like her, like whom. 

In Anglo-Saxon the case governed by the adjective 
like was the dative ; and it may be said, that, at the 
present time, the word in question governs the objective 
on the strength of that case having originally possessed 
a dative character. But it would be better, in the in- 
stances of the above pronouns at least, to recognize a 
dative case as still existing in English. 

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

§ 327. The present is the proper place for explain- 
ing the meaning of the word concord. It is derived 
from the Latin word concordia, and signifies agreement. 

The word man is the name of a male. It is a sub- 
stantive of the masculine gender. The word she re- 
lates to a female. It is a pronoun of the feminine gen- 
der. We cannot say, I saw the man and she (meaning 
the man) saw me., for reasons that are very evident. 
The words she and man are applied to objects of differ- 
ent genders, consequently to different objects ; hence 
they cannot be used in speaking of the same thing. If 
we so use them, there is a disagreement (or discord) in 
respect to gender. I saio the woman and she saw 7ne, is 
good sense. I saw the man and he saw me, is also good 
sense ; since the word she is of the same gender with 
woman, and he of the same gender with 7na7i ; conse- 
quently each pair of words (he and 7?ian, she and ico7nan) 
agrees in gender ; in other words, there is the concord 
of gender. 



PRONOUNS. 157 

§ 328. The second kind of concord is the Concord 
of Number. The word this is of the singular, the word 
hooks is of the plural number. If we say either, this 
hooks are useful^ or, these hook is useful^ we violate the 
concord of number, but if we say, these hooks^ we ob- 
serve the concord of number ; and so we do if we say, 
this hook. For a third concord, the concord of person, 
see § 358. For a fourth, the concord of case, see 
§ 316. 1. 

It is very clear that there can be no practical vio- 
lation of the concords unless there be different forms 
for the different persons and numbers. We can 
say, good hook^ or good hooks^ because the word 
good^ like other adjectives, is the same in both num- 
bers. It is only when we come to the pronouns, 
where there are different forms for the different num- 
bers, that there is any occasion to take cognizance of 
the concords. 

Concord and government are the chief parts of syn- 
tax. 

§ 329. Violations [real or apparent) of the Concord 
of Gender, — In the following expressions there is an 
apparent violation of the concord. 

1. Gold^ whose touch seductive leads to crime, — Ac- 
cording to the view generally taken, the word gold is 
of the neuter gender, whilst whose is either masculine 
or feminine. In this case there is a violation of the 
concord of gender. Still, the matter is susceptible of 
explanation. We may say that gold is personified, and 
dealt with as if it were a person either male or female, 
in the same way that Sin^ Deaths Virtue^ Vice^ &c., 
are personified. 



158 SYNTAX. 

Or else we may deny that the word whose is exclu- 
sively either masculine or feminine. The original pos- 
sessive form in Anglo-Saxon was Iiwces (whose) ^ and it 
was used for all three genders alike. 

2. Tfie cities who aspired to liberty. — The word 
cities is neuter, the word who is either masculine or 
feminine. The expression was probably considered by 
the author who used it, if he thought about it at all, as 
open to the same explanation as the one last men- 
tioned. 

The unexceptionable and unequivocal forms of the 
two expressions just exhibited would be, — 1. Gold^ the 
touch of which seductive leads to crime, 2. The cities 
which aspired to liberty. 

§ 830. Violations {real or apparent) of the Concord 
of Number. — 1. In expressions like the men that fought 
at Waterloo., there is an apparent violation of the con- 
cord of number ; men being plural, whilst that (see 
§ 188) is in form and origin singular. Notwithstanding, 
however, the fact of that being originally of the neuter 
gender and the singular number, it may now be con- 
sidered that the practice of language permits it to be 
used for both numbers, and all genders, indifferently ; 
as, the ivoman that speaks, the man that speaks, the 
children that speak. 

2. I have not travelled this twenty years. — As this 
is singular, and twenty years plural, there is an ap- 
parent violation of the concord of number. Still, it is 
only apparent. The words twenty years, may be con- 
sidered to mean, not twenty separate years taken sever- 
ally, but a number of years amounting to twenty dealt 
with as a single period. In this latter case the words 



PRONOUNS. 159 

twenty years ^ though plural in form, are singular in 
sense. 

3. These sort of people. — Here these is plural, and 
sort is singular ; so that there is a violation (real or ap- 
parent) of the concord of number. Still, as the word 
sort implies the existence of more persons than one, 
the expression is open to the same explanation as the 
preceding one. 

The reason of this confusion of number is indicated 
in § 125. There are in all languages certain substan- 
tives called collectives. Of these collectives the word 
sixpence is a good example. It involves two notions : 
(1.) that of six separate pennies ; (2.) that of six pen- 
nies dealt with as a single sum. In the first case it is 
plural ; since in talking of six separate pennies we con- 
template a plurality of parts. In the second case it is 
singular, since in talking of a single sum we lose sight 
of the plurality of parts, and contemplate only the unity 
of sum that results from them. In all collective sub- 
stantives there is a mixture of two notions, — of that 
expressed by the singular, and of that expressed by the 
plural number ; and this causes apparent irregularities 
in syntax. 

Army ^parliaments people^ moh^ gang^ set ^ family ^ &;c., 
are collectives. 

By remembering that in all languages there is a ten- 
dency to personify s we can explain many apparent vio- 
lations of the Concord of Gender. 

By rem.embering that in all languages there is a great 
number of collective substantives, we can explain many 
apparent violations of the Concord of Number. 

§ 331. Violation of the Concord of Case. — I bought 



160 SYNTAX. 

this at Smitli's the bookseller. Here the words Smithes 
and bookseller mean the same thing; and are, conse- 
quently, in apposition with each other. As such, they 
ought to be in the same case, which they are not. 
Smith'' s is the possessive, bookseller the nominative 
form. This is a violation of the concord of case. The 
proper expression is either Smith'^s the bookseller'* s^ ac- 
cording to § 316; or Smith the bookseller'^s, according 
to § 318. 

This last example ought properly to have appeared 
under the Syntax of Substantives, It was considered, 
however, that the pronoun was the best head under 
which the nature of the concords could be explained. 

§ 332. The Concord of Person will be noticed under 
the Syntax of the Verb. 

§ 333. Pleonasm in the Syntax of Pronouns, — The 
following expressions are pleonastic (§ 320). The 
superfluous pronoun is in each case printed in italics. 

1. The king, he is just. 

2. I saw Aer, the queen. 

3. The men, they were there. 

4. The king, his crown. 

This last example is of importance in the history of 
Grammar. Expressions like it occur frequently in the 
old writers, especially in the Liturgy of the Church ; 
as, for Jesus Christ,^ his sake. On the strength of this, 
it has been imagined by certain writers that the posses- 
sive case throughout the language arose out of an ab- 
breviation of this mode of speech, and that the King's 
grace was nothing more than a shortened form of the 
King^ his grace. This view is erroneous, and, it is to 
be hoped, abandoned. 



PRONOUNS. 161 

1. Expressions like the Queen'' s Majesty are not ca- 
pable of being derived from the Queen, his Majesty ; 
since the pronoun would in such a case be, not his, but 
her ; as, the Queen, her Majesty. 

2. Expressions like the children's bread are not ca- 
pable of being derived from the children, his bread ; 
since the pronoun would in such a case be, not his, but 
their; as, the children, their bread. 

3. The oldest Anglo-Saxon forms exhibit no traces 
of the sound of h. The possessive cases of end, cyning 
(king), smi^ (smith), are end-es, cyning-es, smi^-es, not 
end-Ms, cyning-his, smi'S-his. 

4. The form his itself is not accounted for by the 
view in question ; since we cannot say that his is an 
abbreviated form of he his. 

5. In languages allied to those of the Gothic stock, 
where there is no word like his in existence, the sign 
of the possessive (or genitive) case is still s. 

a. In the Sanskrit, or old language of Hindostan, 
of the same tribe with the languages of the Gothic 
stock, the genitive ends in s.; as, pad-as =z of a foot, 
or foofs. 

b. In the Zend, or old language of Persia, of the 
same tribe with the languages of the Gothic stock, the 
genitive ends in 5 ; as, dughdhar-s z= of a daughter, or 
daughter''s. 

c. In the Greek, of the same tribe with the languages 
of the Gothic stock, the genitive ends in s ; as, odont-os 
z=z of a tooth, or tootVs. 

d. In the Latin, of the same tribe with the languages 
of the Gothic stock, the genitive ends in s ; as, dent-is 
z=z of a tooth, or tooth^s. 

11 



162 SYNTAX. 

e. In the Lithuanic, or language of Lithuania, of the 
same tribe with the languages of the Gothic stock, 
the genitive ends in s ; as, dughter-s ^= of u daughter^ 
or daughter'^s. 

The same is the case in many other of the allied lan- 
guages. 

^ 334. Relative and Antecedent, — The pronoun who 
is called a Relative Pronoun. The pronoun that is also 
used relatively. The word which is a compound of 
who ; and, consequently, like who and that^ is relative 
also. A relative pronoun always relates to some sub- 
stantive or pronoun that has gone before it ; as, 

1. He who wrote the letter is here. 

2. She who wrote the letter is here. 

3. The child that you spoke of is here. 

4. The men that fought are here. 

5. The dagger which stabbed Caesar. 

6. The daggers which stabbed Csesar. 

In all these examples, the words who,, that,, and which 
are relatives. 

The word to which the relative refers (or relates) 
is called the Antecedent,, or the word going before ; 
from the Latin word antecedens = going before. The 
words Ae, s/ie, child^ men,, dagger,, daggers,, are an- 
tecedents. 

§ 335. The relative is always in the same number 
and gender as the antecedent, but not necessarily in the 
same case. This is called the Concord of the Relative 
and Antecedent. 

§ 336. The Position of the Relative and Antecedent, 
— Sometimes there are two words in a term, each of 



PRONOUNS. 163 

which may be an antecedent, whilst there is but a sin- 
gle relative. In this case the relative refers to the last 
of the two. The expression, Solomon^ the son of Da- 
vid^ who huilt the temple^ is exceptionable ; since who 
(the relative) refers in strict grammar to David ; 
whereas it is well known that David was not the 
builder of the temple. 

Still, the expression is capable of being justified by 
§ 318, according to which we may look upon Solomon^ 
the son of David^ as a single word, capable of being 
written Solomon-the-son-of David ^ who, &c. 

§ 337. The hooks I want are here. This is a speci- 
men of a true ellipsis. The phrase includes two prop- 
ositions : (1.) the books are here; (2.) I want. The 
which that should connect the two statements is want- 
ing. 

Him I accuse has entered, Shakespeare. This is 
equivalent to He whom I accuse has entered. When 
the relative and antecedent are in different cases, and 
the relative is omitted, the antecedent is sometimes put 
in the case in which the relative would have been. 

§ 338. Which has so nearly replaced what^ that 
the general use of this last word with its proper pow- 
er, as a neuter relative, is, in the present English, 
vulgar ; e. g. 

The dagger what stabbed Csesar. 

In one case, however, what is used as a true relative ; 
namely, when the antecedent is either this or that ; e. g. 
This is what I mean ; not, This is which I mean. 
That is what I mean ; not, That is which I mean. 

§ 339. The word as, naturally a conjunction, is oc- 
casionally used as a relative pronoun : the man as rides 



16^ SYNTAX. 

to market. This mode of speaking or writing should 
not be imitated. 

§ 340. The Article a or an. — The word an (or a) 
is called an Article, from the Latin word articulus = 
a joint. It can only occur combined or conjoined with 
other words ; as, a man., an island^ a woman. It is the 
same for all genders ; as, a man^ a woman^ a sword. 

It is also the same for all cases, as a man'^s^ a woman^s^ 
a sword'' s^ of a man., to a man., strike a man., &;c. 

It occurs only conjoined with substantives of the sin- 
gular number. It is, in origin, the numeral one ; in 
Scotch, ane. This use of the numeral one for an article 
is common in many languages. 

§ 341. The article an (or a) is used where we speak 
of some single object without specifying or defining it. 
For this reason the word an (or a) is called the Indefi- 
nite Article. 

§ 342. The words an and a are identical. In the 
latter the sound of the n is omitted. Which of the two 
forms is to be used depends upon the nature of the fol- 
lowing substantive. 

1. When the substantive begins with the sound of a 
vowel, we use an ; as, an ant., an egg., an island., an 
ostrich., an hour., an heir. In these last two words the 
h is not sounded (or mute), so that the words heir and 
hour really begin vnth the sounds of vowels. 

2. When the substantive begins with the sound of a 
consonant, a semivowel, or A, we use a ; as, a pan., a 
hat^ a fane ^ a vane., a tile., a den., a thought^ a coat., a 
kitten., a gun., a sun., a zany., a chest., a jest., a house, 
a hill., a hint., a hinderance., &c. 

Ohs, — The following words (and others like them), 



THE i^RTICLE. 165 

although their first letter is a vowel, are preceded by 
the form a: a ewer, a unit, a one (as in many a one). 
We do not say an ewer, an unit, an one, although the 
words are frequently written so. 

Of this we shall see the reason if we remember the 
sounds of the words in question. Ewer, unit, one (and 
other words like them), are sounded yoo-er, yoo-nit, 
icon, in which case they begin, not with a vowel, but a 
semivowel. 

§ 343. The Definite Article the. — The word the is 
called the Definite Article because it specifies or de- 
fines the substantive with which it is conjoined ; as, the 
man, the woman, the child ; by which expression some 
particular man, woman, or child is signified. 

The definite article is the same for all genders ; as, 
the man, the woman, the child. 

It is also the same for all cases ; as, the man^s, the 
children's, the men's, of the man, to the man. 

It is also the same for all numbers ; as, the man, the 
men ; the woman, the women ; the child, the children. 

The definite article was * originally a demonstrative 
pronoun, of the nature of which it partakes. Definite 
articles, originating in demonstrative pronouns, occur 
in most languages. 

§ 344. When two or more substantives come to- 
gether, meaning the same thing, the article is joined 
to the first of them only. We say the secretary and 
treasurer, or a secretary and treasurer, when the two 
offices are held by one person. 

§ 345. When two or more substantives come to- 
gether, meaning different things, the article is repeat- 
ed, and conjoined with each of them. We say the sec- 



166 SYNTAX. 

retary and the treasurer^ or a secretary and a treas- 
urer^ when the two offices are held by separate per- 
sons. This rule is not rigidly adhered to. 

§ 346. For the use of it and tliere^ see the Syntax 
of Verbs. 

§ 347. Instead of the true nominative ye^ we use 
(with few exceptions) the objective case you ; as, you 
speak^ you two are speaking. In this case we substi- 
tute one case for another. 

§ 348. Instead of the true pronoun of the second 
person singular, thou^ we use (with few exceptions) the 
pronoun of the second person plural, ye ; and that (as 
is seen in § 347) in the objective rather than the nom- 
inative case : you speak = thou speakest. 

It is a remarkable fact, that there are very few lan- 
guages where the pronoun of the second person singu- 
lar (the equivalent to the English word thou) is used, 
except in solemn discourse. Sometimes the pronoun 
of the second person plural, sometimes that of the third 
person plural, serves as its substitute. 

§ 349. By referring to, § 188, we shall see that 
the word those is the true demonstrative form, whilst 
the words they and them partake of the nature of per- 
sonal pronouns. Now expressions like those men^ and 
take those things away^ are strictly demonstrative ; 
so that the proper word to be used is those. Instead 
of this, however, we occasionally hear such expres- 
sions as they men^ and take them things away. Al- 
though not to be imitated, the latter expressions are 
capable of being explained, through the fact of the 
original power of they and them being demonstrative. 
(See §§ 185-188.) 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 167 

§ 350. For the nature of the Possessive Pronouns, 
see §§ 190, 191, 192. 

The words my^ thy^ his^ her^ its^ our^ your^ their^ 
are Cases^ in the same way that the word father'' s is 
a Case. 

The words mtwe, thine^ ours^ yours^ hers, theirs, are 
Adjectives, in the same way that good is an Adjective. 

If the words his, her, and its were not Possessive 
Cases, but were true Adjectives, such expressions as 
his mother, her father, its sister, would violate the con- 
cord of gender ; since his is masculine, whilst another 
is feminine ; her feminine, whilst father is masculine ; 
and its neuter, whilst sister is feminine. 

§ 351. That, however, there are certain differences 
between the construction of Possessive Cases, like my, 
thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, and the construction 
of Possessive Cases, like father'' s, mother'' s, &;c., may 
be seen by attending to the following details. 

This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. — The 
first thing to be remarked here is, the diiference in 
sense between a sentence like the one above and a sen- 
tence like this is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton, 
The latter proposition means, this is how Sir Isaac 
Neioton was discovered ; the former means, of Sir 
Isaac Newton'' s discoveries this is one ; or this is one 
of the discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'* s discoveries. 
Now the difference in sense is expressed by the pres- 
ence or the absence of the '5 in Newton''s ; that is, by 
the fact of the noun Newton being in the possessive 
case. In the first sentence the word Newton''s is pos- 
sessive ; and the question arises as to what word it is 
governed by. We see this at once by bearing in mind 



168 SYNTAX. 

the meaning of the sentence. The three sentences, 
(1.) this is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton'' s ; (2.) 
this is one of Sir Isaac Newton^ s discoveries ; (3.) of 
Sir Isaac Newton'' s discoveries this is one (meaning 
nearly the same thing, and differing widely from this 
is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton), are all, if closely 
examined, incomplete in expression. The full expres- 
sion would be, (1.) this is a discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton'^s (discoveries) ; (2.) this is one of the discov- 
eries of Sir Isaac Newton''s (discoveries) ; (3.) of the 
discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton''s (discoveries) this . 
(discovery) is one (discovery). We now see that, in 
the original sentence, the word Newton''s is in the pos- 
sessive case ; because, according to § 317, it is gov- 
erned by the substantive discoveries, not expressed, but 
understood. Again : — 

This is a picture of a friend, means one thing ; 
whilst this is a picture of a friend'^s, means another 
thing. The latter, expressed in full, would be, this is 
a picture of (or from amongst) a friend'' s (pictures). 

An enemy of the emperor, means a man who is hos- 
tile to the emperor. An enemy of the emperor''s, means 
one of the emperor''s enemies. 

A notion of a brother, means a notion concerning a 
brother. A notion of a- l>rother''s, means 07ie (amongst 
others) of a brother''s notions. 

In all sentences like those just quoted (a notion of 
a brother''s, &c.) there are two substantives; one which 
the article a agrees with, and which is expressed ; and 
one by which brother'' s is governed, and which is omit- 
ted, as being understood. 

§ 352. Now if the Pronominal Possessive Cases, my 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 169 

ihy^ (Sec, were in all respects like the Possessive Cases 
of the Substantives (father'^s^ mother^s^ &;c.), we should 
be able to use them where we have used the words 
emperor'^s^ hrother''s^ &c. ; in other words, we should be 
able to say, an enemy of my^ a notion of thy^ &c. 

But this we cannot do ; which shows that the con- 
struction of the words in question, although Possessive 
Cases, is not altogether identical with the construction 
of the Possessive Cases of Substantives. 

Nevertheless, their construction is essentially and 
really that of a Possessive Case. 

§ 353. The words mine^ thine ^ ours^ yours ^ hers^ its^ 
theirs^ are (as stated above) Adjectives, and not cases. 

This is the fact, even although the words ours^ 
your-s^ her-s^ it-s^ theirs^ exhibit the sign of the Pos- 
sessive Case, 5. 

More than this ; in such expressions as the sister 
you speak about is his^ the word his is feminine; 
i. e. if the adjective were inflected, and if there were 
the sign of a feminine gender at all, the word his would 
take that sign. 

This illustrates the difference between the Possessive 
Construction and the Adjectival Construction. 

§ 354. Nevertheless, the words mine, thine, his, hers, 
ours, yours, cannot be used in all cases where adjec- 
tives can be used ; in other words, just as there were 
certain differences between Possessives like my, thy, 
(fee, and Possessives like father''s, &c., so are there 
certain differences between Adjectival Pronouns, like 
mine, thine, and simple Adjectives, like good. Hack, &;c. 

We can say, these are good looks, but we cannot say, 
these are mine hooks. 



170 SYNTAX, 

Rule 1. — ■ The Adjectival Pronouns like mine^ thine^ 
ours^ &;c., are only used when the substantive is under- 
stood ; as, this hook is mine^ i. e. my hook. 

Rule 2. — The Possessive Cases are only used when 
the substantive is expressed ; as, this is my hook (not 
this is mine hook^ nor yet this hook is my). 

Examples. 

This book is my hook ; This book is mine. 

This picture is thy picture ; This picture is thine. 

This dress is her dress ; This dress is hers. 

These pens are our pens ; These pens are ours. 

These clothes are your clothes ; These clothes are yours. 

These horses are their horses ; These horses are theirs, 

§ 355. Construction of the Word Self in Composi- 
tion with Pronouns. — 1. In the words myself thyself 
ourselves^ yourselves., the word self (or selves) gov- 
erns the words W2/, thy., our., your., just as, in the ex- 
pression John^s hat., the word hat governs the word 
John'^s ; so that my., thy., are possessive cases. 

2. This is not the case with the words himself and 
themselves. Here the words self and selves are in ap- 
position with the words him and them respectively. 

3. The word herself is ambiguous ; since it is doubt- 
ful whether her be a possessive or an objective case. 

4. The w^ord itself is also ambiguous ; since it is 
doubtful whether it originated in itself or itsself 

This inconsistency in the use of the word self in 
composition with pronouns is as old as the time of the 
Anglo-Saxons. 

Ohs, — Whenever any other word comes between 



PRONOUNS. SELF. 171 

the personal pronouns and the word self^ the personal 
pronoun is always in the genitive case : my own self^ 
thy own self^ our own selves^ your own selves^ his (not 
him) own self^ her own self^ its (not i^) own self^ their 
(not them) own selves. 

Obs. — In words like himself and themselves, the ap- 
position is strictly true and correct only when the words 
are in the objective case : he flatters himself^ he has 
hurt himself; they flatter themselves, he flatters him- 
self. When the word is in the nominative case, the 
apposition is incorrect. He himself is coming, they 
themselves are coming, are anomalous, although current 
expressions, since they and selves, he and self, are nom- 
inative forms, whilst him and them are objective. This 
is to be explained by overlooking the compound char- 
acter of the words himself and themselves, and consid- 
ering the whole formation as a single word in the nom- 
inative case. 

Probably the inaccuracy in question is too inveterate 
to be remedied, otherwise the following rule would hold 
good. 

Rule. — Whenever the word self is in the nomina- 
tive case, the personal pronoun should be in the pos- 
sessive : myself is weak ; thyself is weak ; ourselves 
are strong; yourselves are strong ; his (not him) self 
is strong ; herself is fair ; its self is good ; their- 
selves are had. 

As it is, the words him and ihem are neither in a 
state of government nor a state of apposition. 

For further observations upon the compounds of self, 
see § 378. 



172 SYNTAX. 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

§ 356. The chief points in the Syntax of Verbs are, 
(1.) the Concord of Number; (2.) the Concord of 
Person. 

§ 357. Concord of Number. — Whenever a single 
object is spoken of, the verb is used in the singular 
number ; as, 7 speak^ thou speakest^ he speaks ; the man 
thinks ; the horse neighs., &c. 

Whenever more objects than one are spoken of, the 
verb is put in the plural number ; as, z^e speak., ye speak .^ 
they speak ; the men think ; the horses neigh., &c. 

In each of these cases the verb is in the same num- 
ber with the substantive or pronoun preceding, and, 
consequently, may be said to agree (or to have concord) 
with it in respect to number. 

§ 358. Concord of Person. — Where a person speaks 
of himself, the verb is in the first person singular ; as, 
I read., I think. 

Where a person speaks to another person, the verb 
is in the second person singular ; as, thou readest^ thou 
thinkest. 

Where a person speaks of any other person (or any 
other object whatever), the verb is in the third person 
singular; as, he reads., the man reads., the woman reads., 
the child reads., the man thinks., the horse neighs., the 
dog harks., &c. 

Where a person speaks of himself and others, the 
verb is in the first person plural ; as, we read^ we 
think. 

Where more persons than one are spoken to^ the 
verb is in the second person plural ; as, ye read^ ye 
think. 



VERBS. 173 

Where more persons (or objects) than one are 
spoken q/, the verb js in the third person plural ; as, 
they read ^ the men read^ the women read ^ the children 
read^ the men think^ the horses neigh^ the dogs hark^ &c. 

In each of these cases the verb is not only in the 
same number with the substantive or pronoun preced- 
ing, but in the same person also. Consequently it may 
be said to agree (or to have concord) with it in respect 
to person. 

§ 359. Government of Verbs, — Laying out of the 
account the verb substantive (for which see §§ 203, 
204), verbs are of two sorts : (1.) transitive; (2.) in- 
transitive. 

In saying, I strike the iron^ the verb strike denotes an 
action. It also does something more ; it denotes an 
action that has an effect upon an object ; since the word 
iron is the name of an object, and the word strike is 
the name of an action that affects that object. In this 
case the action may be said to pass off from the agent 
(i. e. the person who strikes) to the object (i. e. the 
iron). Verbs expressing action capable of affecting 
objects are called Transitive Verbs ; from the Latin 
word transire = to pass over. 

In saying, I walk^ the verb walk denotes an action. 
It does not, however, denote an action that has any 
effect upon any object whatever. The action alone, in 
its simplest form, is stated to take place. Verbs like 
walk are called Intransitive^ because no action can be 
said to pass off from them to any object. 

§ 360. Respecting the Government of these two sorts 
of verbs, there are the two following rules : — 

1. Transitive verbs always govern the substantive in 



174 SYNTAX. 

the objective case ; as, I strike hini^ he strikes we, they 
teach us^ the man leads the horse^ &c. 

2. Intransitive verbs govern no case at all ; as, J 
sleep^ Iwalk^ I think, &c. 

Remark, — The same word has often two mean- 
ings, one of which is transitive and the other intran- 
sitive ; as, 

A. 1. I move^ — where the verb is intransitive, and 
denotes the mere act of motion. 2. I move my limhs, 

— where the verb is transitive, and where the action 
affects a certain object [my limhs). 

B. 1. Iwalk^ — where the verb is intransitive, and 
denotes the mere act of walking. 2. I walk the horse^ 

— where the words I walk are equivalent to I cause to 
walk^ and are also transitive, denoting an action affect- 
ing a certain object {the horse). 

This fact of the same verb having transitive and 
intransitive meanings must be continually borne in 
mind ; otherwise, transitive verbs will appear to be 
without an objective case, and intransitive verbs to 
govern one. 

§ 361. Rejlectives, — In such phrases as he sat him, 
down^ sit thee down^ the personal pronoun in the ob- 
jective case is used reflectively. As a general rule, 
whenever we use the personal pronoun reflectively, 
we employ the word self in combination with it. The 
exceptions to this rule are either poetical expressions 
or imperative moods. 

The reflective is equivocal in 

" Busk t/e, busk ye^ my bonny, bonny bride," 
since ye may be either a nominative case governing 
the verb husk^ or an objective case governed by it. 



VERBS. 175 

In the phrase, I fear me, the verb is intransitive ; in 
other words the word me does not express the object 
of any action, whilst the meaning is the same as in the 
simple expression I fear, 

§ 362. The Partitive Construction, — Certain tran- 
sitive verbs, the action of which is extended not to the 
whole, but only to a part of their object, are followed 
by the preposition of and an objective case. To eat 
of the fruit of the tree = to eat a part (or some) of 
the fruit of the tree. It is not necessary here to sup- 
pose the ellipsis of the word part (or some). The gen- 
itive case after the verb formerly expressed this parti- 
tive sense, and the preposition of followed by the ob- 
jective now serves as an equivalent for the partitive 
genitive. 

§ 363. In phrases like give it him^ whom shall I 
give it^ the him and whom are properly dative cases. 

In the phrase, Rob me the exchequer^ the me is exple- 
tive, i. e. not necessary to the sense, and is equivalent 
to for me. The pronoun in such expressions is prop- 
erly in the dative case. 

§ 364. Syntax in Respect to Mood. — When an ab- 
solute command is made, the verb is used in the im- 
perative mood ; as, go ! walk I stand ! do not go ! go 
not ! walk not ! do this ! come hither ! 

When two verbs come together, the latter is used in 
the infinitive mood ; as, I wish to go^ I long to speak^ 
I have to write^ let me go^ dare you come ? when shall 
I go 7 &c. 

When an action is mentioned as absolutely taking 
place, as absolutely having taken place, or as absolutely 
being about to take place, the verb is used in the in- 



176 SYNTAX. 

dicative mood ; as, I speak^ thou speakest^ he speaks ; 
we speak^ ye speak^ they speak. 

When an action is mentioned as taking place under 
certain conditions and contingencies, rather than as ab- 
solutely taking place, the verb is used in the conjunc- 
tive mood ; as, if he speak, if he move, if he stand ; 
not if he speak-s, moves, stands. 

§ 365. Syntax of the Infinitive Mood. — A verb in 
the infinitive mood is preceded by the particle to ; as, 
I begin to speak, he wishes to run, he fears to move. 

§ 366. Except in the case of the words may, can, 
will, shall, let, must, do. 

I may go ; not I may to go. 

I might go ; not I might to go. 

I can move ; not I can to move. 

I could move ; not I could to move. 

I will speak ; not I will to speak. 

I would speak ; not I would to speak. 

I shall wait ; not I shall to wait, 

I should wait ; not I should to wait. 

Let me go ; not let me to go. 

I do speak ; not I do to speak. 

I did speak ; not I did to speak. 

Also with the verb dare when it is intransitive, and 
means to venture ; as, 

" I dare do all that doth become a man : 
Who dares do more, is none.'''' — Shakespeare. 

When, however, it signifies to challenge or defy, and 
is transitive, it requires to to accompany the infinitive 
mood following ; as, 

" I dare thee hut to hreathe upon my Zoi^e." 

Shakespeare. 



VERBS. 177 

Also with the following verbs : see^ hear^ fr^h ^^^i 
have^ need. 

Thou shall not see thy Irother^s ox or his ass fall 
down hy the way. 

We heard him say, I will destroy, this temple. 

I feel the pain abate. 

He bade her alight, 

*' I would fain have any one name to me that tongue 
that any one can speak as he should do hy the rules of 
grammar.'^'* — Locke. 

We need only go to London. 

§ 367. Syntax of the Conjunctive Mood. — Certain 
words denote contingency or uncertainty. The verb 
that accompanies these words denotes an act that may 
or may not take place ; that is, an act which will take 
place under certain conditions and contingencies. These 
words are, except.^ lest^ so^ before^ ere, till^ if however^ 
though^ although^ unless^ whosoever^ whatever, whether, 
that ; as, 

1. " Except I be hy Silvia in the night, 

There is no music in the nightingale.'^'^ 

Shakespeare. 

2. " Let us go and sacrifice to the Lord our God, 
lest he fall upon us with pestilence. '^'^ — Old Testament. 

3. " Revenge hack on itself recoils. 
Let it. I reck not, so it light well aimed.^"* 

Milton. 

4. " Let there he some more test made of my metal. 

Before so nolle and great a figure 
Be stamped upon it.'''' — Shakespeare. 

5. " Seek out his wickedness till thou find none."^^ — 
Old Testament. 

12 



ITS SYNTAX. 

6. " If this be the case.'' 

7. " However it be." 

8. " Though our outward man perish." — Old 
Testament. 

9. " Although my house be not so with God." — 
Old Testament. 

10. " He shall not eat of the holy thing unless he 
wash his flesh with water,'' — Old Testament. 

11. " He that trouhleth you shall bear his judgment^ 
whosoever he be." — Old Testament. 

12. '' Whatever be our fate^ yet let us try," — Pope. 

13. " Whether it were I or they." 

14. '' Beware that thou bring not my son thither." — 
Old Testament. 

If that be understood, the construction is the same ; 
as, see thou tell no man ; equivalent to see that thou tell 
no man. 

Ohs. — As none of the above always denote contin- 
gency, none of them are always followed by a conjunc- 
tive mood. 

§ 368. When two verbs are connected by the con- 
junction that^ signifying intention, or referring to an 
action that has not taken place, they are both in the 
same tense ; as, I do so that I may gain hy it ; where 
do and may are both present tenses. On the other 
hand, in the sentence, I did this that I might gain hy it^ 
the tw^o words did and might are both preterites. 

Obs. — When no intention is expressed, or where the 
action is absolutely past, this rule does not apply. We 
use the expressions, / say that he had spoken, and I say 
that he speaks, with equal correctness. 

'^ 369. Number. — Two or more nouns, each in the 



VERBS. 179 

singular number, connected by means of the conjunc- , 
tion and^ require the verb to be in the plural number ; 
as, the father and son are (not is) at home, 

§ 370. Two or more nouns, each in the singular 
number, connected by means of a preposition, require 
the verb to be in the singular number ; as, the father,^ 
ivith the son^ is (not are) at home, 

§ 371. Two or more nouns, each in the singular 
number, connected by means of the conjunction or or 
wor, require the verb to be in the singular number ; as, 
either the father or the son is coming ; neither the fa- 
ther nor the son is coming, 

§ 372. Collective substantives, although in the sin- 
gular number, may agree with a verb in the plural 
number ; as, the multitude pursue pleasure. 

§ 373. In respect to substantives like alms,, &c., the 
syntax has been noticed in § 126. 

§ 374. Construction ofii with a Verh, — It^ followed 
by a verb substantive and a noun, requires the verb to 
be in the singular number, whatever may be the num- 
ber of the noun ; as, it is (not are) we ; it is (not are) 
the men who never reason. Here the verb agrees 
with it, 

§ 375. Construction of there with a Verh. — There,, 
followed by a verb substantive and a noun, requires the 
verb to be in the same number with the noun ; as, there 
are (not is) men that never reason. Here the verb 
agrees with men, 

§ 376. Syntax of the Persons, — A verb is always 
accompanied by either a substantive or a pronoun ; as, 
I seem,, thou thinkest^ he seems,, she seems,, it seems^ we 
seem,, ye seem,, they seem,, horses seem,, men think^ the 
horse seems,, the man thinks,, it seems to me. 



180 SYNTAX. 

In several languages the pronoun is omitted^ in which 
case the verb stands alone. If the English language 
followed in this respect the same principle as the Latin, 
we could say simply, think (for I think) ^ thinkest (for 
thou thinkest)^ thinketh or thinks (for he thinketh or 
thinks). In this case there would be the omission of 
the pronoun. 

§ 377. In three words in English this omission of the 
pronoun really takes place ; only, however, in the third 
person singular, and with the pronoun it ; as, 

1. Meseems. This is equivalent to it seems to me, 

2. Methinks. This also is equivalent to it seems to 
me. In this compound the word thinks is of a different 
origin from the word think,, in expressions like I think,, 
or he thinks. In Anglo-Saxon there were two forms, 
'pencan = to think,, and ^inca7i = to seem. It is from 
the latter form that the word methinks originates. 

3. Me listeth,, or me lists. This is equivalent to it 
pleases me. In Anglo-Saxon lystan = to wish,, choose,, 
please,, delight. 

These three verbs are called Impersonal, because 
they can be used without a pronoun expressive of 
person. 

§ 378. When a compound of the word self stands 
alone, it requires the verb to be in the third person ; as, 
myself is (not am) weak, thyself is (not art) weak, my- 
self speaks (not speak), thyself speaks (not speakest). 
In this case the word self follows the construction of 
any other substantive, and we say, myself is weak, just 
as we would say, my body is iveak. This rule is often 
violated, even by good writers ; as, 

" I only know myself am weak." — Pope. 



VERBS. 181 

§ 379. When a compound of the word self is used 
with a pronoun of the first or second person, the verb 
agrees with that pronoun ; as, J myself am (not is) weak^ 
thou thyself art (not is) weak. 

§ 380. Syntax of the Verb have with the Past Par- 
ticiple. ■— This occurs in phrases hke I have spoken^ 
I have slept^ I have moved^ I have written ; where have 
is in the present tense, and where spoken^ slept ^ moved^ 
written^ are past passive participles. The phrases, 
I had spoken^ I had movedy &c,, are in the same pre- 
dicament, except that there had is in the past tense. 
I had been movedy I shall have struck^ are modifica- 
tions of the same construction, the phrase being some- 
what more complex. Now, in all the phrases quoted 
above, the word have (or had) has the same power. 
It indicates past time. It indicates past time, even al- 
though it be itself in the present tense {I have written). 
As the natural meaning of the word have denotes pos- 
session^ it may naturally be asked how it comes to 
mean past time. The difficulty that here arises be- 
comes more visible if we substitute for the word have 
some word of similar meaning, such as hold^ possess, 
or own. To say, I own written a letter^ I possess writ- 
ten a letter, I hold written a letter, sounds like nonsense ; 
at any rate, it gives no such meaning as is given by 
the words, I have written a letter. A little considera- 
tion, however, will show how the power of expressing 
past time may arise out of the idea of possession. In 
the first place, it is very evident that, in order for a 
person to possess an object, the object must be in ex- 
istence. We cannot say that a man has a written let- 
ter, without also implying that a letter has been written. 



182 SYNTAX. 

Hence the idea expressed by the words, I have a wriU 
ten letter^ or I have a letter written^ is alHed to the idea 
expressed by I have written a letter. If such be the 
origin of the phrase I have written a letter^ five things 
ought to be the case : — 

1st. That the word written should have no agree- 
ment with the pronoun governing the word ; e. g. in 
the phrase I have written it should have no connection 
with the word 7, nor in the phrase he has written any 
reference to the pronoun he. 

2d. That it should be connected with the substan- 
tive that follows; e. g. I have written a letter should be 
equal to I have a letter written, 

3d. That in respect to case it should agree with that 
substantive ; e. g. in the phrases, I have slain a cow^ 
I have struck a hull^ I have slain men^ the word slain 
should be in the accusative case throughout, inasmuch 
as it is governed by the verb have. 

4th. That in respect to number it should agree with 
the same substantive. In the phrases, I have spurred 
a horse ^ and I have spurred horses^ the first spurred 
should be singular, the second spurred plural, in order 
to agree with the singular substantive horse on one 
hand, and with the plural substantive horses on the 
other hand. 

5th. That in respect to gender it should agree with 
the same substantive. 

Now, the participle joined to the verb have actu- 
ally comes under all these conditions, since it is an 
accusative case, taking the number and gender of 
the noun with which it agrees. At least such it was 
originally, and such we must now consider it, if wq 



VERBS. J83 

wish to have the true history of the expression. This 
fact would have lain on the surface, and have been 
seen at once, if it were not for the deficiency of 
inflection in the English language. Just like the ad- 
jective good [good hoy^ good girl ; good hoys^ good 
girls) ^ the participle written has the same form for 
all cases, genders, and numbers ; and this conceals the 
fact of its following the case, gender, and number of 
the substantive with which it is connected. Add to 
this the circumstance that the participle has in the pres- 
ent English a peculiar position in the sentence. The 
following order, / have a horse ridden^ or I have a rid- 
den horse ^ connects the fact of a horse having been 
ridden with the idea of possession, as indicated by the 
word have, much more than the current phrase, which 
runs thus : I have ridd,en a horse. The proofs that the 
view above is the true one are as follows : — 

1. In certain other languages we find other words 
besides have, expressive of possession, used for the sake 
of denoting past time ; e. g. in Spanish the word tengo 
= I hold, and in Old High German and Old Saxon the 
word eigan = to own. In these tongues, phrases like 
I hold ridden, I own ridden, = I have ridden, are 
actually existing. 

2. In Old High German, Old Saxon, and Anglo- 
Saxon, we have the order of the participle and substan- 
tive occasionally reversed ; e. g., instead of saying, I 
have forgotten it, I have chosen him, I have made one, 
the phrases ran, I have it forgotten (i. e. I possess it 
as a forgotten thing), I have him chosen (i. e. I possess 
him as a chosen person), I have one made (i. e. I have 
one as a made thing). 



184 SYNTAX. 

3. That in languages where there is a sufficient 
amount of inflection to exhibit the participle as agree- 
ing in case, number, and gender with the substantive to 
which it applies, such agreement is exhibited. In the 
Latin of the Middle Ages we find expressions like 
literam scriptam liabeo = I have, as a thing written, a 
letter, or I have written a letter. 

Respecting expressions like the one in question, there 
is yet one point to be explained. This concerns the 
gender. 

In the two sentences, 1 have ridden a horse and 1 
have ridden a mare, the word ridden is in the same 
gender, although horse is masculine and mare is femi- 
nine. Moreover, the word ridden is in the neuter gen- 
der, and, as such, equally different in gender from the 
two substantives horse and mare. This is the case not 
only with the sentences in question, but with all others 
like them. Whatever may be the gender of the sub- 
stantive, the participle that follows the word have is 
always neuter. 

Apparently this violates the statement made above, 
viz. that the participle agreed with the noun in case, 
number, and gender. In reality it does not violate it. 
All sentences like the one in question are elliptical, the 
word thing being understood ; so that / have written a 
letter is equivalent to I possess a letter as a written 
thing ; I have ridden a horse is equivalent to I possess 
a horse as a ridden thing ; I have ridden a mare is 
equivalent to I possess a mare as a ridden thing. 

Hence it is not with the substantive that appears in 
the sentence, but with the substantive thing understood, 
that the participle agrees. As such, it is in the neuter 
gender. 



VERBS. 185 

§ 381. Syntax of the Verb Substantive in the Pres- 
ent Tense with the Past Participle Passive, — In prop- 
ositions like I am moved^ he is beaten,^ we are struck^ it 
is given^ the verb substantive is joined to the participle 
passive ; and so there arise phrases which have the 
power of a verb in the passive voice. It is well known 
that in some languages these ideas are expressed, not 
by the combination of the verb substantive and par- 
ticiple, but by a single word ; e. g. in Latin, moveor = 
I am moved ; percutimur = we are struck ; datur = it 
is given. In the circumstance that the phrases above 
have the power of passive forms, there is nothing pe- 
culiar. Beyond this there is, however, a peculiarity. 
The participles moved, beaten, struck, given, are par- 
ticiples not of a present, but of a past tense ; and hence 
the proper meaning of the phrases given above (and 
of all others like them) should be very different from 
what it really is. / am moved should mean, not I am 
in the act of being moved, but I am a person who has 
been moved ; he is beaten should mean, not he is a per' 
son who is in the act of suffering a beating, but he is one 
who has suffered a beating ; in other words, the sense 
of the combination should be past, and not present. 
By a comparison between the English and Latin lan- 
guages in respect to this combination of the verb sub- 
stantive and participle, this anomaly on the part of the 
English becomes very apparent. The Latin word mo- 
tus is exactly equivalent to the English word moved. 
Each is a participle of the passive voice and of the 
past tense. Besides this, su7n in Latin equals I am in 
English. Now the Latin phrase motus sum is equiva- 
lent, not to the English combination / am moved, but to 



186 SYNTAX. 

the combination I have leen moved ; i. e. it has a past, 
and not a present sense. In Greek the difference is 
plainer still, because in Greek there are two participles 
passive, one for the present and another for the past 
tense ; e. g. tvtttqixcvos elfiL [iyptomenos eimi) =i I am 
one in the act of undergoing a heating ; Tervfifiivos elfxl 
= I am one who has undergone a heating. The reason 
for this confusion in English lies in the absence of a 
passive form for the present. In Moeso-Gothic there 
existed the forms slahada = he {she or it) is beaten 
{percutitur^ rvTrrerat), and slahanda = they are beaten 
(percutiuntur^ TVTTTovTai) {typtontai). These were true 
passive forms. In like manner there occurred gibada 
= he {she or it) is given {datur), &c. Now, as long 
as there was a proper form for the present, like those 
in Moeso-Gothic, the combinations of the present tense 
of the verb substantive with the participle past passive 
had the same sense as in Latin and Greek ; that is, it 
indicated past time ; e. g. ga-bundan-s im = I have 
been bound { not Jam bound)^ gibans ist = he {she or 
it) has been given (not is given), &c. When the pas- 
sive form, however, was lost, the combination took the 
sense of a present tense. 

SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 382. Besides the adverbs, there is another class of 
words that can enter into the construction of a proposi- 
tion only when combined with other words. Take the 
word to or from, and deal with it in the way that the 
adverb cheerfully was dealt with. 

We cannot make it the subject of a proposition. We 
cannot say, to is summer, or from is summer. 



PREPOSITIONS. 187 

Neither can we make it the predicate of a prop- 
osition. We cannot say, summer is to^ or summer is 
from. 

Nor yet can it become a copula. We cannot say, 
summer to pleasant^ summer from pleasant. 

Just as little can either to or from form copula and 
predicate at once. We cannot say, summer to^ summer 
from, in the same way that we say, summer cheers. 

In order to admit words like to or from into a propo- 
sition, we must combine them with other words. 

Now words like to and from will not combine with 
the same parts of speech as words like cheerfully com- 
bine with. 

1. They will not combine with adjectives. We can- 
not say, summer is from pleasant, summer is to hot, 

2. They will not combine with participles. We can- 
not say, he is hunting from, they are shooting to. 

3. They will not combine with verbs. We cannot 
say, he comes from, he drinks to. 

The class of words with which words like to and 
from will combine are the substantives and pronouns. 
We can say, he comes from London, he comes from the 
country, he drinks to me, she drinks to him, (fee. 

§ 383. All words like to and from require a substan- 
tive or a pronoun to be combined with them. 

§ 384. In most languages, where a word like to or 
from is combined with a substantive or pronoun, the 
word like to or from comes first, whilst the substan- 
tive or pronoun follows after ; as, Ae comes from Lon- 
don, not he comes Jjondon from. 

§ 385. Owing to the fact of words like to and from, 
when combined with a substantive or pronoun, coming, 



188 SYNTAX. 

in most languages, first, they are called Prepositions, 
from the Latin words jor^^ (hefor^e) and po situs (placed)^ 
or words placed first. In languages where they fol- 
low the substantive or pronoun, the term preposition is 
somewhat inapplicable. 

§ 386. A preposition is a word that can enter into a 
proposition only when combined with a substantive or 
pronoun ; as, 

John is going to London. 
James is coming from London. 
§ 387. The following words, along with several 
others, are prepositions : in^ on^ of., at^ up., hy^ to^ for^ 
from., till., with., through. 

§ 388. Eveiy preposition governs a case ; that is, 
eveiy preposition is followed by a substantive or a pro- 
noun in some case or other. 

§ 389. In different languages different prepositions 
govern different cases. In the present English they 
govern the objective case exclusively ; as, the son of the 
father., he speaks to him. We cannot say, he speaks to 
he ; and if we say, a son of the father'' s., our meaning 
is different from what it is when we say, a son of the 
father. 

§ 390. Several words are sometimes adverbs and 
sometimes prepositions. They are adverbs when they 
are destitute of case ; they are prepositions when they 
govern a case. 

Adverbs. Prepositions. 

Put it in ; Put it in the box. 

Get on ; Get on the horse. 

Go up ; Go up the tree. 

Pass by ; Pass by the place 

Cut through ; Cut through the armor. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 189 

§ 391. Combinations of words are capable of being 
used as prepositions ; as, up-on, round-about^ a-cross^ 
instead-of^ he-tween^ with-in^ with-out^ &c. 

<§ 392. Certain prepositions, combined with substan- 
tives and pronouns, are equivalent in sense to cases. 
Between the expressions the son of the father and the 
father^ son there is no great difference of meaning. 
This circumstance has induced many writers to call the 
combination of a father a possessive case. This is 
erroneous. The true view of the expression of a fa- 
ther is, that it is an objective case governed by a prep- 
osition, forming a combination equivalent (or nearly so) 
to the possessive case father'^s, 

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 393. The following sentences contain, each of 
them, two propositions, and between each of these two 
propositions it may be seen that there is a connecting 
word : Rome is enslaved^ because Ccesar is ambitious ; 
the sun shines^ and the sky is clear ; the moon is in- 
tervening^ therefore the sun is in eclipse; it is not day^ 
but it is night ; the town was taken ^ although a hero 
defended it. 

A word that connects two separate propositions is 
called a Conjunction ; ^ from the Latin word conjungo = 
I join together. 

^ This definition of a Conjunction is qualified in the next para- 
graph by the introduction of the word " almost." In the third edi- 
tion of the English Language^ however, the same definition is re- 
peated without qualification. But in such sentences as two and 
two make, four^ the sun and moon shine together^ the conjunction and 
indisputably connects two words^ and not two propositions. 



190 SYNTAX. 

Almost every conjunction, although it appears to 
connect only separate loords^ really connects separate 
propositions. In sentences like the sun and moon 
shine^ the father and the son talk, there is the appear- 
ance of being only a single proposition, so that all that 
is connected by means of the conjunction and appears 
to be the words su7i and moon, father and son. This, 
however, is not the case in reality. The sentence the 
Sim and moon shine contains in fact two separate prop- 
ositions ; one concerning the sun (namely, that it 
shines), the other concerning the moon (namely, that it 
shines). The same holds good with the sentence the 
father and son talk. One proposition states that the 
father talks ; the other, that the son talks. The full 
expressions would be : 

The sun shines and the moon shines ; 
The father talks and the son talks ; 
for these. 

The sun and moon shine. 
The father and son talk, 
are only compendious forms. 

§ 394. The same is the case with words where the 
conjunction than occurs ; as. 

This is sharper than that. 
I like you letter than he. 
I like you better than him. 
Each of these sentences is elliptical. In full they 
would be : 

This is sharper than that is sharp. 
I like you better than he likes you. 
I like you better than I like him. 
Here, as above, there are two propositions connected 
by the conjunction than. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 19 1 

§ 395. No conjunction ever governs a case. Certain 
apparent exceptions to this statement will be noticed 
in § 398. 

§ 396. Words originally other parts of speech are 
sometimes used as conjunctions ; as, ihat^ except^ 
whether^ &c. 

§ 397. Combinations of words are sometimes used 
as conjunctions ; as, not-withstanding^ never-the-less. 

§ 398. In the following sentences, taken from good 
writers, the word than occurs followed by an objective 
case, and apparently violating § 395. 

You are a much greater loser than me. — Swift. 

She suffers more than me. — Swift. 

A stone is weighty^ and sand heavy ^ hut a fooVs 
wrath is heavier than them loth, - — Old Testament. 

Thou art a girl as much brighter than her, 

As he was a poet suhlimer than me. — Prior. 

No one of these expressions is correct ; or, if so, 
they are correct only under the idea that the word 
than is sometimes a conjunction (when it cannot gov- 
ern a case), and sometimes a preposition (when it can 
govern a case). 

§ 399. In what case the word following than ought 
to be, can always be determined by filling up the sen- 
tence. Thus, thou art wiser than I is equivalent to 
thou art wiser than I am ; you love him more than J, to 
you love him more than Hove him ; you love him more 
than me, to you love him more than you love me. 

The case of a noun following than is regulated, not 
by that word, but by the verb that would occur if the 
sentence were complete. 

^ 400. The conjunction that is often omitted, even 



192 SYNTAX. 

by good writers ; as, I fear it comes too much from the 
heart (Addison), for I fear that it comes too much from 
the heart, 

INTERJECTIONS. 

§ 401. The last class of words contains those that 
neither connect different propositions, nor yet form 
parts of separate ones. Ah ! oh ! ! alas ! pish I 
tush I We use these words, but we use them without 
the idea of making any statement or assertion. 

Words that neither form parts of a proposition, nor 
connect two different propositions, are called Inter- 
jections. 

GOVERNMENT. 

§ 402. Government is of three sorts. 

1. Government of a noun by a noun ; as, the fa- 
ther'^s son, 

2. Government of a noun by a verb ; as, I strike him, 

3. Government of a noun by a preposition ; as^ the 
father of the son ; give this to him. 

§ 403. Sometimes the expression is incomplete, and 
the* governing noun, the governing verb, or the govern- 
ing preposition, is omitted or understood ; as, 

1. This was bought at Rundle and Bridge'' s ; where 
the governing noun shop is omitted by ellipsis. See 
§ 319. 

2. I like you better than him ; where the full expres- 
sion would be, I like you better than I like him, so that 
the verb like, governing him, is understood. 

§ 404. But besides expressions like the ones just 
mentioned, there are others where there is neither gov- 



NOUNS STANDING ABSOLUTELY. 193 

ernment by means of a noun, verb, or preposition, nor 
yet any ellipsis or omission. In this case the noun is 
said to stand absolutely, 

§ 405. Nouns standing absolutely are of two sorts : 
1. Those originating in an Accusative case. 2. Those 
originating in a Dative case. 

§ 406. In expressing distance or duration^ either in 
time or space, we use the noun absolutely ; as, he walked 
ten miles (i. e. the space of ten miles) ; he stood three 
hours (i. e. the space of three hours). Here the words 
stood and walk are intransitive ; so that it is not by 
them that the words miles and hours are governed. 
They stand absolutely. Although not distinguished in 
form from the nominative case, these words are not 
nominatives. They are naturally accusatives ; and 
when, in an older stage of the Gothic languages, the 
accusative was distinguished from the nominative, they 
appeared in the form of the accusative. 

§ 407. The door being open, the steed was stolen ; 
the sun having arisen, the laborers proceeded to work. 
In these sentences the words door and sun stand ab- 
solutely ; and as the words being open and having 
arisen agree with them, they also do the same. In 
English substantives.^ where there is no distinction be- 
tween the nominative and the objective cases, it is of 
no practical importance to inquire as to the particular 
case in which the words like door and sun stand. 

§ 408. In the English pronouns.^ where there is a 
distinction between the nominative and objective cases, 
it is of practical importance to inquire in what partic- 
ular case words like door and sun stand. 
13 



194 SYNTAX. 

1. He made the best proverbs of any one^ him only 
excepted. 

2. He made the lest proverbs of any one^ he only 
excepted. 

Which of these two expressions is correct ? This we 
can decide only by determining in what case nouns 
standing absolutely, in the way that door, sun, and him 
(or he) now stand, were found in that stage of our lan- 
guage when the Nominative and Objective cases were 
distinguished by separate forms. 

In Anglo-Saxon this case was the Dative ; as, up-a' 
sprungenre sunnan = the sun having arisen. 

In Anglo-Saxon, also, Am was a dative case, so that 
the case out of which expressions like the ones in 
question originated was dative. Hence, of the two 
phrases him excepted and he excepted, the former is the 
one w^hich is historically correct. 

It is also the form which is logically correct. Al- 
most all absolute expressions of this kind have a refer- 
ence, more or less direct, to the cause of the action de- 
noted. In sentences like the stahle-door being open, 
the horse was stolen ; the sun having arisen, the laborers 
got up to work; this idea of either a cause, or a coinci- 
dence like a cause, is pretty clear. 

In the sentence, he made the best proverbs of any one, 
him only excepted, the idea of cause is less plain. Still 
it exists. The existence of him (i. e. the particular 
person mentioned as preeminent in proverb-making) is 
the cause or reason why he (i. e. the person spoken of 
as the second-best proverb-maker) was not the very- 
best of proverb-makers. 



NOUNS STANDING ABSOLUTELY. 195 

Now in languages which have only these four cases, 
Nominative, Possessive, Objective, and Dative, and con- 
sequently no peculiar form to express cause or agency, 
the Dative supplies the place of such a case. Hence 
the Anglo-Saxon Dative Absolute. 

In spite, however, both of history and logic, the so- 
called best authorities are in favor of the use of the 
Nominative case in the absolute construction. 

Ohs, — In all absolute constructions of the kind in 
question, one of the words is either a Substantive or a 
Pronoun, the other a Participle, The reason of this 
is in the fact of all such absolute constructions indicat- 
ing either an action or a state. 



PART V. 

PROSODY. 

§ 409. The word Prosody is derived from a Greek 
word (Prosodia) signifying accent. It is used by Latin 
and English grammai-ians in a wider sense, and in- 
cludes not only the doctrines of accent and quantity, but 
also the laws of metre and versification. 

§ 410. Take the sentence last written, count the syl- 
lables, and mark those that are accented. — The word 
Prosody is derived from a Greek word signifying ac- 
cent It IS used by Latin and E^nglish grammarians 
in a wider sense, and includes not only the doctrines 
of accent and quantity, but also the laws of metre and 
versification. — Here the accented syllables are the 
2d, 3d, 8th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 17th, 21st, 23d, 26th, 
29th, &c. ; that is, between two accented syllables 
there are sometimes three, sometimes two, and some- 
times no unaccented syllables intervening. In other 
words, there is no regularity in the recurrence of the 
accent. 

§ 411. Proceed in the same way with the following 
stanza, numbering each syllable, and observing upon 
which the accent occurs. 

Then fare thee well, mine own dear love. 

The world hath now for us 
No greater grief, no pain above 

The pain of parting thus. — Moore. 



METRE. 197 

Here the syllables accented are the 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, 
10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th, 20th, 22d, 24th, 26th, 
and 28th ; that is, every other syllable. Again, 

At the close of the ddy, when the hdmlet is still, 
And the mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove, 

And when naught but the torrent is hedrd on the hill, 
And there's naught but the nightingale's song in the grove- 

Beattie. 

Here the syllables accented are the 3d, 6th, 9th, 
12th, 15th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 27th, 30th, 33d, 36th, 39th, 
42d, 45th, and 48th ; that is, every third syllable. 

§ 412. Now the sentence in which there was no reg- 
ularity in the recurrence of the accent was prose ; and 
the extracts in which the accent recurred at regular in- 
tervals formed metre. Metre is the general term for the 
recurrence within certain intervals of syllables sim- 
ilarly affected. The syllables that have just been num- 
bered are similarly affected, being similarly accented. 
Accent is not the only quality of a syllable, which, by 
returning at regular intervals, can constitute metre. 
It is the one, however, upon which English metre de- 
pends. English metre essentially consists in the regu- 
lar recurrence of syllables similarly accented. 

Abbot. -^ And why not live and dot with other men ? 

Manfred. — Because my nature was averse from life ; 

And yet not cruel, for I would not make, 

But find a desolation : — like the wind, 

The red-hot breath of the most lone simoom. 

Which dwells but m the desert, and sweeps o'er 

The barren sands which bear no shrubs to bldst, 

And revels o'er their wild and arid waves, 

And seeketh not so that it is not sought, 

But being met is deadly : such hath been 

The path of my existence. — Btron. 



198 PROSODY. 

§ 413. Measures, — For every accented syllable in 
the following line write the letter a, and for every un- 
accented one the letter a?, so that a may stand for an 
accent, x for the absence of one : 

The way was long, the wind was cold. — Scott. 
Or expressed symbolically, 

xaxaxaxa^ 
where x coincides with ^Ae, a with way^ &;c. 

§ 414. Determine the length of the line in question. 
It is plain that this may be done in two ways. We 
may either measure by the syllables, and say that the 
lines consists of eight syllables ; or by the accents, and 
say that it consists of four accents. In this latter case 
we take the accented syllable with its corresponding 
unaccented one, and, grouping the two together, deal 
with the pair at once. Now a group of syllables thus 
taken together is called a measure. In the line in ques- 
tion the way (x a) is one measure, was long {x a) anoth- 
er, and so on throughout ; the line itself consisting of 
four measures. 

The wdr, that for a space did fail, 
Now trebly thundered on the gale, 

And Stanley was the cry ; 
A light on Marmion's visage shed, 

And fired his glazing eye : 
With dying hand, above his hedd 
He shook the fragments of his blade. 
And shouted victory ! — Scott. 

§ 415. It is very evident that there must be different 
sorts of measures. In lines like the following, the 
measure is the reverse of the preceding one. The ac- 
cented syllable comes first, the unaccented one follows ; 
the formula being a x. 



MEASURES. 199 

Lay thy bow of pedrl apdrt, 

A'nd thy silver shining quiver; 
Give unto the flying hdrt 

Time to breathe, how short soever ; 
Thoii that mdk'st a day of night, 
Goddess exquisitely bright. — Ben Jonson. 

§ 416. Trisyllabic Measures, — The number of 
measures consisting of two syllables, or dissyllabic 
measures, is necessarily limited to two, expressed by 
a X and x a respectively. But beyond these there are 
in the English language measures of three syllables, 
or trisyllabic measures. The number of these is ne- 
cessarily limited to three. 

The first of these is exhibited in the word merrily 
{a X x). 

Merrily, merrily shall I live now, 

U'nder the blossom that hdngs on the bodgh. — Shakspeare. 

§ 417. The second is exhibited by the word dis» 
able (x a x). 

But vainly thou warrest, 

Eor this is alone in 
Thy power to declare, 
That in the dim forest 

Thou heard'st a low moaning, 
And saw'st a bright Mdy surpassingly fair. 

Coleridge. 

§ 418. The third is exhibited by the word cavalier 
{x X a). 

There 's a beauty for ever unf^dingly bright, 

Like the long ruddy lapse of a summer-day's night. — Moore. 

§ 419. When grouped together according to certain 
rules, measures form lines and verses ; and lines and 
verses, regularly arranged, constitute couplets, triplets, 



200 PROSODY. 

and stanzas, <Sz;c. Before we speak of these, it will be 
necessary to exhibit the nature of rhyme. 

§ 420. Rhyme. — In the forthcoming quotation each 
pair of lines is called a Couplet. Observe in each coup- 
let the last syllable of each line. These are said to 
rhyme to each other. 

O'er the glad waters of the dark blue sea, 
Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free^ 
Far as the breeze can bear the billow's foam^ 
Survey our empire and behold our home. 
These are our realms, no limits to our sway^ — 
Our flag the sceptre all who meet obey. 

The next extract is a stanza of Gray's " Elegy," 
where, instead of following one another in succession, 
the rhyming lines come alternately. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark, unfathomed depths of ocean hear ; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 

In other stanzas the rhyming lines are sometimes 
continuous (or in succession), and sometimes separated 
from each other by an interval. 

And yet how lovely in thine age of woe^ 

Land of lost gods and godlike men, art thou ! 
Thy vales of evergreen, thy hills of snow^ 

Proclaim thee Nature's varied favorite now. 
Thy fanes, thy temples, to thy surface how^ 

Commingling slowly with heroic earthy 
Broke by the share of every rustic plough : 

So perish monuments of mortal birth, 
So perish all in turn, save well-recorded worth. — Btron'. 

§ 421. It is not difficult to see, in a general way, 
in what rhyme consists. The syllables sea and free., 
foam and home., &c., are syllables of similar sound ; 



RHYME. * 201 

and lines that end in syllables of similar sound are 
lines that rhyme. 

By substituting in a line or stanza, instead of the 
final syllable, some word different in sound, although 
similarly accented, and equally capable of making 
sense, we may arrive at a general view of the nature 
and influence of rhyme as an ornament of metre. In 
the following stanza we may spoil the effect by sub- 
stituting the word glen for vale^ and light for ray. 

Turn, gentle hermit of the vale, 

And guide thy lonely way 
To where yon taper cheers the dale 

With hospitable ray. — Goldsmith. 
Turn, gentle hermit of the glen, 

And guide thy lonely way 
To where yon taper cheers the dale 

With hospitable light. 

§ 422. The definition of the word rliyme mus^ be 
made closer ; — syllables may be similar in their sound, 
and yet fail in furnishing full, true, and perfect rhymes. 
In each of the forthcoming couplets there is evidently 
a similarity of sound, and there is equally evidently an 
imperfection in the rhyme. 

I. 

The soft-flowing outline that steals from the eye. 
Who threw o'er the surface, — did you or did I ? 

Whitehead. 
II. 
'T is with our judgments as our watches ; none 
Go just alike, yet each believes his own. — Pope. 

III. 
Soft o'er the shrouds aerial whispers breathe, 
That seemed but zephyrs to the train beneath. — Pope, 



202 * PROSODY. 

The first of these three pairs of verses was altered 
into 

The soft-flowing outline that steals from the view, 
Who threw o'er the surface, — did I or did you '? 

and that solely on account of the imperfectness of the 
original endings, eye and L 

These are samples of what passes for a rhyme with- 
out being one. A true rhyme will be better understood 
after the analysis of a rhyming syllable. 

§ 423. Analysis of a Pair of Rhyming Syllahles. — 
Let the syllables told and hold be taken to pieces, and 
let the separate parts of each be compared. Viewed 
in reference to metre, they consist of three parts, or 
elements : 1. the vowel (o) ; 2. the part preceding the 
vowel {t and b respectively) ; 3. the parts following 
the vowel (Id). Now the vowel (o) and the parts fol- 
lowing the vov/el {Id) are alike in both words {old) ; 
but the part preceding the vowel is different in the dif- 
ferent words {told^ hold). This difference between 
the parts preceding the vowel is essential ; since, if it 
were not for this, the two words would be identical, or 
rather there would be but one word. This is the case 
with JTand eye. Sound for sound (although different in 
spelling), the two words are identical, and consequently 
the rhyme is faulty. 

Again : compared with the words hold and told, the 
words teeth and hreeze have two of the elements neces- 
sary to constitute a rhyme. The vowels are alike (ee)^ 
whilst the parts preceding the vowels are different 
[hr and t) ; and, as far as these two matters are con- 
cerned, the rhyme is a good one, tee and hree. Not- 
withstanding this, there is by no means a rhyme; 



RHYME. 203 

since the parts following the vowel {th and xe), instead 
of agreeing, differ. Breathe and beneath are in the 
same predicament, because the th is not sounded alike 
in the two words. 

Again : the words feel and mill constitute only a 
false and imperfect rhyme. Sound for sound, the let- 
ters f and m (the parts preceding the vowel) are dif- 
ferent. This is as it should be. Also, sound for sound, 
I and II (the parts following the vowel) are identical ; 
and this is as it should be also. But ee and i (the 
vowels) are different, and this difference spoils the 
rhyme. None and own are in the same predicament ; 
since one a is sounded as o in note^ and the other as 
the u in but. 

From what has gone before we get the notion of true 
and perfect rhymes as opposed to false and imperfect 
ones. For two (or more) words to rhyme to each 
other, it is necessary, 

1. That the vowel be the same in both. 

2. That the parts following the vowel be the same. 

3. That the parts preceding the vowel be different. 
Beyond this it is necessary that the syllables, to form 

a full and perfect rhyme, should be accented syllables. 
Sky and lie form good rhymes, but sky and merriZi^ 
bad ones, and merrily and silly worse. Lines like the 
second and fourth of the following stanza are slightly 
exceptionable on this score ; indeed, many readers sac- 
rifice the accent in the word merrily to the rhyme, and 
pronounce it merrilij. 

The witch she held the hair in her hand, 

The red flame bldzed high ; 
And round about the caldron stout, 

They danced right merri/^. — Kirke White. 



204 PROSODY. 

§ 424. Varieties of Imperfect Rhymes. — None and 
own are nearer to rhymes than none and man ; because 
there are degrees in the amount to which vowels differ 
from one another ; and the sounds of the o in none 
and the o in own are more alike than the sounds of the 
in none and the a in man. In like manner breathe 
and teeth are nearer to rhymes than hreathe and teaze ; 
and hreathe and teaze are more alike in sound than 
hreathe and teal : this is because the sound of th in 
teeth is more allied to that of th in hreathe than to that 
of z in teaze, and to the z in teaze more than to the I in 
teal. This shows that in imperfect rhymes there are 
degrees, and that some approach the nature of true 
ones more than others. 

§ 425. In matters of rhyme the letter h counts as 
nothing. High and J, hair and air, are imperfect 
rhymes ; because h (being no articulate sound) counts 
as nothing, and so the parts before the vowel i and a 
are not different (as they ought to be), but identical. 

Whose generous children narrowed not their hearts 
With commerce, given alone to arms and arts. — Byeon. 

§ 426. Words where the letters coincide, but the 
rounds differ, are only rhymes to the eye. Breathe 
and beneath are in this predicament ; so also are cease 
and ease {eaze). > 

In the fat age of pleasure, wealth, and ease, 

Sprang the rank weed, and thrived with large increase. 

Pope. 

§ 427. If the sounds coincide, the difference of the 
letters is unimportant. 



RHYME. 205 

Bold in the practice of mistaken rules, 

Prescribe, apply, and call their masters fools. — Pope. 

They talk of principles, but notions prize, 
And all to one loved folly sacrifice. 

§ 428. Single Rhymes, — An accented syllable stand- 
ing by itself, and coming under the conditions given 
above, constitutes a single rhyme. 

'T is hard to say if greater want of skill 

Appear in writing or in judging ill ; 

But, of the two, less dangerous is the offence 

To tire the patience than mislead the sense. 

Some few in that, but thousands err in this ; 

Ten censure wrong, for one that writes suniss. — Pope. 

§ 429. Double Rhymes, — An accented syllable fol- 
lowed by an unaccented one, and coming under the 
conditions given above, constitutes a double rhyme. 

The meeting points the sacred hair dissever 
Prom her fair head for ever and for ever. — Pope. 

Prove and explain a thing till all men doubt it^ 
And write about it, Goddess, and 2Jbout it. — Pope. 

§ 430. An accented syllable followed by two unac- 
cented ones, and coming under the conditions given 
above, constitutes a treble rhyme. 

Beware that its fatal SLSc6ndency 

Do not tempt thee to mope and repine ; 
With a humble and hopeful dependency 

Still await the good pleasure divine. 
Success in a higher beatitude 

Is the end of what 's under the Pole ; 
A philosopher takes it with gratitude, 

And believes it the best on the whole. — Byron. 



206 PROSODY. 

^ 431. Accent is essential to English metre. Rhyme, 
on the other hand, is only an ornament. Of all the 
ornaments of English versification it is undoubtedly 
the most important. Still it is not essential. Metres 
where there is no rhyme are called Blank Metres. 

Of man's first disobedience and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world and all our woe, 
"VYith loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
Eestore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, Heavenly Muse ! — Milton. 

The quality of mercy is not strained. 

It droppeth as the gentle dew from heaven 

Upon the place beneath ; it is twice blessed, 

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes ; 

'T is mightiest of the mighty, it becomes 

The throned monarch better than his crown. 

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 

The attribute of awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings : 

But mercy is above this sceptred sway ; 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings : 

It is an attribute to God himself; 

And earthly power doth then show likest God's, 

When mercy seasons justice. — Shakespeare. 

§ 432. Classification of the English Measures, — If 
we lay out of our calculations the measures consisting 
of a single syllable, on the one hand, and those consist- 
ing of four syllables, on the other, the number of the 
English measures is five. Two of these are dissylla- 
bic, and three trisyllabic. The dissyllabic ones come 
first in order. Of these the one where the accented 
syllable precedes the unaccented one naturally stands 
first. The same takes place with the trisyllabic meas- 



ENGLISH MEASURES. 207 

ures. It is very fortunate that our measures are thus 
capable of being classed naturally ; since, by so class- 
ing them, we can number them according to their place 
in the arrangement, and, in speaking of them, say the 
first measure, the second measure, the third measure, 
and so on. This is necessary, since there is no con- 
venient and unexceptionable name for each separate 
measure. The order, then, of the English measures is 
as follows : — 

1. ax. — tiirant. silly. ) ^. „ , . 

o . /' > Dissyllabic. 

2. X a, — presume^ deter ^ ) *^ 

3. a X X. — merrily.^ fortify^ ) 

4. X a X, — disable^ preferring., > Trisyllabic. 

5. X X a. — refugee^ cavalier^ j 

§ 433. The last Measure in a Line or Verse is in- 
different as to its Length. — By referring to the section 
upon single rhymes, we shall find that the number of 
syllables is just double the number of accents ; that is, 
to each accented there is one unaccented syllable, and 
no more. Hence, with five accents, there are to each 
line ten syllables. This is not the case with the lines 
in § 429. There the rhymes are double, and the last 
accented syllable has two unaccented ones to follow it. 
Hence, with five accents there are to each line eleven 
syllables. Now it is in the last measure that this super- 
numerary unaccented syllable appears ; and it is a gen- 
eral rule that, in the last measure of any verse, super- 
numerary unaccented syllables can be admitted with- 
out destroying the original character of the measure. 
Hence it is that, up to a certain point, we may say that 
the length of the concluding measure of a line or verse 
is a matter of indifference. 



208 PROSODY. 

Now in the verses in § 429 the original character 
of the measure is x a throughout, until we get to the 
words dissever and for ever^ and afterwards to men 
doubt it and about it. At the first view it seems proper 
to say that in these last-mentioned cases x a is con- 
verted into X a X, A different view, however, is the 
more correct one. Dissever and for ever are rather 
X a with a syllable over. This extra syllable may be 
expressed by the sign plus (-|-)? so that the words in 
point may be expressed by a; a -j-^ rather than by x a x. 
It is very clear that a measure whereof the last sylla- 
ble is accented (that is, measures like x a, presume^ or 
X X a^ cavalier) can only vary from its original char- 
acter on the side of excess ; that is, they can only be 
altered by the addition of fresh syllables. To subtract 
a syllable from such feet is impossible ; since it is only 
the last syllable that is capable of being subtracted. 
If that last syllable, however, be the accented syllable 
of the measure, the whole measure is annihilated. 
Nothing remains but the unaccented syllable preced- 
ing ; and this, as no measure can subsist without an 
accent, must be counted as a supernumerary part of 
the preceding measure. 

§ 434. With the measures a x, a x x^ x a x^ the case 
is different. Here there is room for a syllable or sylla- 
bles to be subtracted. 

^ Queen and huntress, chaste and fair, 

Now the sun is laid to sleep, 
Seated in thy silver chair, 

State in wonted splendor keep. 
Hesperus invokes thy light. 
Goddess, exquisitely bright. — Ben Jonson. 



METRICAL NOTATION. 209 

In all these lines the last measure is deficient in a 
syllable ; yet the deficiency is allowable, because each 
measure is the last one of the line. The formula for 
expressing fair^ sleep ^ chair ^ &c., is not a, but rather 
a X followed by the minus sign ( — ), or a x — . 

A little consideration will show that, amongst the 
English measures, x a and x x a naturally form single, 
a X and x a x double, and a x x treble rhymes. 

§ 435. Metrical Notation, — The lines in § 428 con- 
sist each of five measures, each measure being x a 
This we may express thus : — 

xaxaxaxaxa 

The presence of a supernumerary syllable may be 
denoted by the sign +• The lines in § 429 will 
now run, 

xaxaxaxaxa -\-. 

On the other hand, the sign — indicates the absence 
of a syllable ; so that the line. 

Queen and huntress chaste and fair, 
runs, 

ax ax ax ax — . 

These forms may be rendered more compendious by 
the introduction of the arithmetical sign X ? signifyincr 
multiplication, by means of which we may write, in- 
stead of 

ax ax ax ax — , 

a shorter form, or 

a a: X 4 — . 

If it be asked to what purpose this symbolical nota- 
tion is introduced, the answer is, that neither our meas- 
ure nor our verses have sufficiently unexceptionable 
denominations. With this method of notation we can 
14 



210 PROSODY. 

proceed to the examination of lines (or verses) and 
stanzas. 

§ 436. Verses formed hy the First Measure^ or a x. 
— LA verse so short as to consist of a single accented 
syllable can be conceived to exist. Its formula would 
be a X — . I know of no actual specimens. The next 
in point of brevity would be a x. This also is either 
non-existent, or too rare to be of practical importance. 

2. Verses of Two Measures. Formula a a; X 2. 

Rich the treasure, 

Sweet the pleasure. — Dryden. 

Verses of Formula a x X 2 — . 

Tumult cease, 
Sink to peace. 

3. Three Measures. Formula a ^ X 3. 

E'very drop we sprinkle 
Smoothes away a wrinkle. 

Formula ax X 3 — . 

Fill the bumper fair — 
O'n the brow of care. 

The two varieties of this formula, rhyming alter- 
nately, constitute the following stanza. 

Fill the bumper fair ; 

E'very drop we sprinkle 
O'n the brow of care 

Smoothes away a wrinkle. 
Sages can, they say. 

Seize the lightning's pinion, 
A'nd bring down its ray 

From the starred dominion. — Mooke. 



FIRST MEASURE. 211 

. 4. Four measures. Formula a a? X 4. 

Then her countenance all over — 
But he clasped her like a lover. 

Formula a x X ^ — • 

Pale again as death did prove — 
A'nd he cheered her so61 with love. 

These two varieties alternating, and with rhyme, 
constitute one of the commonest metres of which a x 
is the basis. 

Then her countenance all over 

Pale again as death did prove ; 
But he clasped her like a lover, 

A'nd he cheered her soul with love. 
So she strove against her weakness, 

Though at times her spirits sank ; 
Shaped her heart with woman's meekness 

To all duties 6f her rank. 
A'nd a gentle consort made he *, 

A'nd her gentle mind was such, 
That she grew a noble lady, 

A'nd the people loved her mdch. 
But a trouble weighed upon her, 

A'nd perplexed her night and mom 
With the burden of an honor 

U'nto which she was not bom. — Tennyson. 

5. Five measures. Formula a a? X 5« 

Narrowing in to where they sat assembled, 
Low, voluptuous music winding trembled. 

Formula a x X ^ — . 

Then methought I heard a hollow sound. 
Gathering up from all the lower gro6nd. 



212 PROSODY. 

The two varieties mixed : — 

Then methought I heard a hollow sound, 
Gathering up from all the lower ground. 
Narrowing in to where they sat assembled, 
Low, voluptuous music winding trembled, 
Woven in circles : they that heard it sighed, 

Panted, hand in hand, with faces pale. 
Swung themselves, and in low tones replied 
Till the fountain spouted, showering wide 

Sleet of diamond-drift and pearly hail : 
Then the music touched the gates and died. 

Tennyson. 

6. Six measures. Formula a x X 6, or a x X 6 — , 

O'n a mountain, stretched beneath a hoary willow, 
Lay a shepherd swam, and viewed the rolling billow. 

7. Seven measures. Formula a^x7, orao^X^ — . 

We have had enough of action and of motion ; we — 
Let us swear an oath, and keep it, with an equal mind. 

8. Eight measures. Formula a x X B, or a a: X 8 — . 

Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 't is early mom : 
Leave me here ; and. when you want me, sound upon the bugle- 
horn. 

Lines of this formula occur sometimes unmixed, and 
constituting whole poems ; as, 

Here about the beach I wandered, nourishing a youth sublime 
With the fairy tales of science, and the long results of Timej 
When the centuries behind me, like a fruitful land reposed ; 
When I clung to all the Present for the promise that it closed ; 
When I dipped into the Future, far as human eye could see, 
Saw the vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be.— 
In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast ; 
In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest j 



SECOND MEASURE. 213 

In the spring a livelier iris changes on the burnished dove *, 

In the spring a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love. 

Then her cheek was pale and thinner than should be for one so 

young, 
And her eyes on all my motions with a mute observance hung. 
And I said, " My cousin Amy, speak, and speak the truth to me ; 
Trust me, cousin, all the current of my being sets to thee." 

Tennyson {Lockesley Hall). 

Sometimes mixed with other measures (as with lines 
of formula a x ^ 1) : — 

We have had enough of action and of motion ; we 
Rolled to larboard, rolled to starboard, when the surge was seeth- 
ing free, 
Where the wallowing monster spouted his foam -fountains in the sea. 
Let us swear an oath, and keep it with an equal mind, 
In the hollow lotos-land to live and lie reclined 
On the hills, like gods together, careless of mankind : 
For they lie beside their nectar, and their bolts are hurled 
Far below them in the valleys, and the clouds are lightly curled 
Round their golden houses, girdled with the gleaming world ; 
Where they smile in secret, looking over wasted lands, 
Blight and famine, plague and earthquake, roaring deeps and 

fiery sands, 
Clanging fights, and flaming towns, and sinking ships, and pray- 
ing hands. — 
Surely, surely, slumber is more sweet than toil ; the shore. 
Than labor in the deep mid-ocean, wind, and wave, and oar. 
O, rest ye, brother mariners, we will not wander more ! 

Tennyson {TJie Lotos Eaters). 

Lines based upon a x are rarely without rhyme ; in 
other words, they rarely constitute blank verse. The 
accent lies on the odd syllables. 

§ 437. Verses Formed hy the Second Measure^ or 
X a. — 1. Lines so short as to be reducible to x a are 
of too rare an occurrence to demand special notice. 



214 PROSODY. 

Formula x a -{-. 

Thou Being 

All-seeing, 
0, hear my fervent prayer j 

Still take her, 

And make her 
Thy most peculiar care. — Burns. 

Generally two lines of this formula are arranged as 
single verses. Such is the case with those just quoted, 
that are printed, 

Thou Being all-seeing, 

O, hear my fervent prayer ; 
Still take her, and make her 

Thy most peculiar care. 

2. Two measures. Formula x a X ^• 

Unheard, unknown, 
He makes his moan — 
What sounds were heard ! 
What scenes appeared — 
The strains decay, 
And melt away. — Pope. 

Formula a: a X 2 +• 

Upon a mountain, 
Beside a fountain. 

3. Three measures. Formula x a X S. 

"With hollow blasts of wind — 
All on a rock reclined. 

Formula x a X 3 +• 

'T was when the seas were roaring — 
A damsel lay deploring. 



SECOND MEASURE. 215 

The alternation of the two varieties of a: a X 3 con- 
stitutes what may be called Gay's stanza. 

'T was when the seas were roaring 

With hollow blasts of wind, 
A damsel lay deploring, 

All on a rock reclined. 
Wide o'er the foaming billows 

She cast a wistful look ', 
Her head was crowned with willows, 

That trembled o'er the brook. — Gay. 

Cold sweat is plashing o'er them, 

Their breasts are beating slow : 
The sands and shelves before them 

Flash fire at every blow. 
Their fellows stand in fear of 

The upshot of the fray ; 
The child unborn shall hear of 

The wrestling of that day. 

4. Four measures. Formula a? a X 4. 

On, on he hastened, and he drew 

My gaze of wonder as he flew. 

Though like a demon of the night 

He passed and vanished from my sight, 

His aspect and his air imprest 

A troubled memory on my breast ; 

And long upon my startled ear 

Rung his dark courser's hoofs of fear. — Byron. 

5. Five measures. Formula rr a X 5. 

Fond fool ! six feet of earth is all thy store, 

And he that seeks for all shall have no more. — Hall. 

Formula x a X 5 -[-• 

The meeting points the sacred hair dissever 
From her fair head for ever and for ever. — Pope. 



216 PROsoDy. 

§ 438. As this last is the standard metre in the Eng- 
lish language, it may serve as a basis for the study 
of the rest. In point of time it is one of our earliest 
forms of verse. It was written by Chaucer in the 
fourteenth century, is written by the poets of the pres- 
ent generation, and has been used by most writers of 
the intermediate period. Its chief cultivators have been 
Chaucer, Dryden, Pope, Cowper, and Byron, in rhyme ; 
and Milton and the dramatists in blank verse. In char- 
acter it has every variety. For serious poetry (except 
in the drama) it is considered that the admission of an 
extra syllable at the end of the line (i. e. formula 
X a X ^ +) is exceptionable. Whenever it occurs in 
Milton it is found fault with by Johnson ; and the same 
author asserts that, with one exception, it always ap- 
pears disadvantageously in Pope. In the drama, where 
the language of common life is more especially imi- 
tated, the formula a; a X 5 + is not only admissible, 
but necessaiy. 

The general term for metres of the form in question 
is Heroic. The first division into which the heroic me- 
tres fall is into, 1. Blank heroics, 2. Rhyming heroics. 

§ 439. Blank Heroics. — Blank heroics, or blank 
verse, as it is generally called, falls into two varieties, 
determined by the nature of the subject-matter : 1. 
Dramatic blank verse ; 2. Narrative blank verse. 

§ 440. Dramatic Blank Verse. — With the exception 
of the earliest dramas in the language, and some rhym- 
ing tragedies written in imitation of the French about the 
time of Charles the Second, the writings for the Eng- 
lish stage consist chiefly of either prose or blank verse. 
It is in blank verse that most tragedies and many com- 



DRAMATIC BLANK VERSE. 217 

edies are either wholly or partially written. Dramatic 
blank verse not only admits, but calls for, the formula 
X a X 5 +. Often there are two supernumerary syl- 
lables. In rhyming metres these would constitute 
double rhymes. 

Othello's speech before the senators. 

Most potent, grave, and reverend seigniors, 

My very noble and approved good masters, 

That I have ta'en away this old man's daughter^ 

It is most true : true, I have married her: 

The very head and front of my offending 

Hath this extent, no more. Kude I 'm in speech 

And little blessed with the set phrase of peace, 

For since these arms of mine had seven years' pith 

Till now, some nine moons wasted, they have used 

Their dearest action in the tented field, 

And little of this great world can I speak, 

More than pertains to feats of broil and battle; 

And therefore little shall I grace my cause 

In speaking of myself: yet by your patience 

I will a round, unvarnished tale deliver 

Of my whole course of love ; what drugs, what charms, 

What conjuration, and what mighty magic^ 

(For such proceedings am I charged withal,) 

I won his daughter. — Shakespeare. 

Narrative Blank Verse, — The metre of " Paradise 
Lost," "Paradise Regained," Young's "Night Thoughts," 
Cowper's " Task," Cowper's " Homer," &c. 

Nine times the space that measures day and night 
To mortal men, he, with his horrid crew, 
Lay vanquished, rolling in the fiery gulf 
Confounded, though immortal : but his doom 
Preserved him to more wrath, for now the thought 
Both of lost happiness and lasting pain 
Torments him. 



218 PROSODY. 

Here the admission of a supernumerary final sylla- 
ble is rare. Lines of eleven syllables, like the follow- 
ing, are uncommon. 

Of sovran power mth aw^ul ceremony. 

Paradise Lost, Book I. 

RTiyining Heroics. — For further notice of this class 
of metres, see § 444. 6. 

6. Six measures. Formulas x a y, ^^ and a: a X 6 +• 

He lifted up his hand that back again did start. — Spexser. 

Ye s^icred bards that to | your harps' melodious strings 

Sung th' ancient heroes' deeds, | the monuments of kings ; 

If, as those Druids taught | who kept the British rites, 

And dwelt in darksome groves, | there counselling with sprites, 

When these our souls by death | our bodies do forsake, 

They instantly again | to other bodies take, 

I could have wished your souls | redoubled in my breast, 

To gi\Q my verse applause | to time's eternal rest. — Dratton. 

7. Seven measures. Formulas a; a x 7, and x a X 
7+. 

But one request I make to Him | that sits the skies above, 
That I were freely out of debt | as I were out of love ; 
0, then to dance and sing and play | I should be very willing, 
I 'd never owe a maid a kiss, | and ne'er a knave a shilling. 

Suckling. 

8. Eight measures. Formulas a? a x 8, and x a X 
8+. 

Where virtue wants, and vice abounds, | and wealth is but a 

baited hook 
Wherewith men swallow down the bane | before on danger dark 

they look. 

§ 441. Verses formed upon the Third Measure^ or 
a X X. — Verses formed upon measure a x x are neither 



THIRD MEASURE. 219 

frequent nor regular. Generally there is the deficiency 
of some unaccented syllable, in which the formula is 
reduced to a x x — , which may be confounded with 
the first measure, or a x. The point to determine is, 
whether the general character of the verse is trisyllabic 
or dissyllabic. 

1. Two measures. Formulas a x x x 2^ and a x x 
X 2 — . Of these the latter is most common. Not 
only one of the unaccented syllables, but even both of 
them are frequently wanting at the end of lines. 

Pibroch o' Donuil Dhu ! 

Pibroch o' Donuil ! 
Wake thy shrill voice anew, 

Summon Clan Connuil. 
Come away, come away, 

Hark to the summons ! 
Come in your war array, 

Gentles and commons. — 
Come ev'ry hill-plaid, and 

True heart that wears one ; 
Come ev'ry steel blade, and 

Strong hand that bears one. — 
Leave the deer, leave the steer, 

Leave nets and barges : 
Come with your fighting-gear, 

Broadswords and targes. 
Come as the winds come, when 

Porests are rinded ; 
Come as the waves come, when 

Navies are stranded ; 
Paster come, faster come, 

Paster and faster, 
Chief, vassal, page, and groom, 

Tenant and master. 
Past they come, f^st they come, 

See how they gather ! 



220 PROSODY. 

Wide waves the eagle plume, 

Blended with heather. 
Cast your plaids, draw your blades, 

Forward each man set ! 
Pibroch of Donuil Dhu, 

Knell for the onset. — Scott. 

Where shall the Idver rest, 

Whom the Pates sever 
From his true maiden's breast, 

Parted for ever ? 
Where, through groves deep and high. 

Sounds the far billow ; 
Where early violets die 

U'nder the willow. — Scott. 

O'ft have I seen the sun. 

To do her honor, 
Fix himself at his noon 

To look upon her, 
A'nd hath gilt ev'ry grove, 

EVry hill near her, 
With his flames from above, 

Striving to cheer her. 
A'nd when she from his sight 

Hath herself turned. 
He, as it had been night, 

I'n clouds hath mourned. — Drayton. 

2. Three measures. Formulas a x x X S^ and a x x 
X 3— . 

Peace to thee, isle of the ocean. 

Peace to thy breezes and billows ! — Byron. 

3. Four measures. Formulas a a: a? X 4, and a x x 
X4— . 

Merrily, merrily shall I live now, 

U'nder the blossom that hangs on the bough. 

Shakespeare. 



FOURTH MEASURE. 221 

1. 

Warriors or chiefs, should the shaft or the sword 
Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord, 
Heed not the corpse, though a king's, in your pdth, 
Bury your steel in the bosoms of Gath. 

Thou, who art bearing my buckler and how, 
Should the soldiers of Saul look away from the foe, 
Lay me that moment in blood at thy feet, 
Mine be the doom that they dare not to meet. 

3. 

Farewell to others, but never we part, 

Heir to my royalty, son of my heart : 

Bright be the diadem, boundless the sway, 

Or kingly the death that awaits us to-day. — Byron. 

§ 442. Verses formed upon the Fourth Measure^ or 
X a X. — Verses of a single measure are equivocal, 
since x a x cannot be distinguished from a; a + ; whilst 
X a X — is identical in form with x a. The general 
character of the verses in the neighborhood determines 
whether measures of this sort shall be looked upon as 
dissyllabic or trisyllabic. 

1. Two measures. Formulas a? a ic x 2, and x a x 
X2— . 

Beside her are laid 

Her mattock and spade — 

Alone she is there, 

Her shoulders are bare — 

EVer alone 

She maketh her moan. — Tennyson. 

But vamly thou warrest 5 

For this is alone in 

Thy power to declare, 

That, in the dim forest, 

Thou heard'st a low moaning. — Coleridge. 



222 PROSODY. 

The black bands came over t 

The A'lps and their snow ; 
With Bourbon, the rover, 

They passed the broad P6. 
We [have] beaten all foemen. 

We [have] captured a king, 
We [have] turned back on no men, 

And so let us sing, 
" The Bourbon for ever ! 

Though penniless all. 
We 'II [have] one more endedvor 

At yonder old wall. 
. With [the] Bourbon we '11 gather 

At day-dawn before 
The gdtes. and together 

Or break or climb o'er 
The wall : on the ladder 

As mounts each firm foot, ^ 

Our shout shall be gladder, 

[And] death only be mute. — 
The Bourbon ! the Bourbon ! 

Sans country or home, 
We '11 follow the Bourbon 

To plunder old Rome." — Byron. 

2. Three measures. Formulas a? a a? X 3, and x a x 
X3— . 

I've found out a gift for my fair; 

I 've foiind where the wood-pigeons breed : 
But let me that pliander forbear ; 

She '11 say 't was a barbarous deed. 

He ne'er could be true, she averred, 
Who [would] rob a poor bird of its young ; 

[And] I loved her the more when I heard 

Such tenderness fall from her tongue. — Shenstone. 

A conquest how hiird and how glorious ; 

Though fate had fast bound her, 

With St3''x nine times round her, 
Yet music and love were victorious. — PopB. 



FOURTH MEASURE. 223 

3. Four measures. Formulas x a x X 4^ and x a x 
X4-. 

The world will not change, and her heart will not break. 

,,.--, Tennyson. 

Eemember the glories of Brian the brave. — Moore. 

0, hush thee, my babie, thy sire was a knight, 

Thy mother a lady both lovely and bright : 

The woods and the glens and the towers which we see, 

They all are belonging, dear babie, to thee. — Scott. 

I ask not the pleasures that riches supply, 
My sabre must win what the weaker must buy : 
[It] shall win the fair bride with her long, flowing hair. 
And many a maid from her mother shall tear. 
I love the fair face of the maid in her youth, 
[Her] caresses shall lull me, her music shall soothe. 
[Let] her bring to my chamber the many-toned lyre, 
And sing me a song on the fall of her sire. — Bykon. 

0, young Lochinvar is come out of the west : 
Through all the wide border his steeds are the best ; 
And, sdve his good broadsword, he weapons had none. 
He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. 
So faithful in love, and so gallant in war, 
[Did] ye e'er hear of bridegroom like young Lochinvar ? 

Scott. 

[Thanks,] my Lord, for your ven'son : for finer nor fatter 

Ne'er ranged in the forest nor smoked on the platter : 

The flesh was a picture for painters to study, 

The fat was so white, and the lean was so ruddy. 

[Though] my stomach was sharp, I could scarce help regretting 

To spoil such a delicate picture by eating. — Goldsmith. 

§ 443. Verses Formed upon the Fifth Measure^ or 
X X a. 



224 PROSODY. 

1. Formula x x a. 

As ye sweep 

Through the deep. — Campbell. 

For practical purposes, a pair of lines of this formula 
is dealt with as if it constituted a single verse. 

As ye sweep, through the deep. 

2. Formula x x a x 2, 

In my rage shall be se6n 

The revenge of a queen. — Addison. 

See the snakes that they rear, 

How they hfss in the air ! — Dryden. 

3. Formula x x a X S, 

And the sparkles that flash from their eyes ! — Dryden. 

Lines of these two formulas are intermixed ; as, 

See the snakes that they rear, 
How they hiss in the air. 
And the sparkles that flash from their 6yes ! 

Dryden. 

4. Formula x x a x 4, 

And the king seized a flambeau with zeal to destroy. 

Dryden. 

There is generally an intermixture of measures, xx a 
and X a x^ in lines of this formula ; since the omission 
of a single syllable will convert 

X X a X X a x x a x x a 

into 

X a X X a X x a x x a, 

as may be seen by separating the measures differently. 



FIFTH MEASURE. 225 

1. 

The Assj'rian came down like a wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold : 
And the sheen of the spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the bliie wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 

2. 

Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen : 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn is blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

3. 

For the A'ngel of Death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed ; 
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, 
And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever grew still. 

4. 

And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide ; 
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pr'de 
• And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, 
And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf. 

5. 

And there lay the rider distorted and pale, 
With the dew on his brow, and the rust on his mail ; 
And the tents were all silent, the banners alone, 
The lances unlifted, the trumpet unblown. 

And the widows of A'shur are loud in their wail. 

And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal, 

And the might of the Gentile, unsmdte by the sword. 

Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord. — Byrox. 

5. Formula x x a X ^. Rare, if occurring at all. 

6. Formula x x a x 6. Rare, if occurring at all. 

7. Formula x x a x 7. Lines of this sort, when they 

15 



626 PROSODY. 

occur, are to be looked upon as consisting of two lines 
reduced to a single verse by the omission of the rhyme. 

Now he rode on the waves of the wide-rolling sea | and he foraged 
around hke a hawk. 

§ 444. Lines or verses grouped together constitute 
stanzas, couplets, triplets. It is only a few of the Eng- 
lish metres that are known by fixed names. These are 
as follows : — 

1. Gay'^s Stanza. — Lines of three measures, x a, 
with alternate rhymes. The odd (i. e. the 1st and 3d) 
rhymes double. 

'T was when the seas were roaring 

With hollow blasts of wind, 
A damsel lay deploring, 

All on a rock reclined. 

2. Common Octosyllahics. (§ 437. 4.) — Four meas- 
ures, X a, with rhyme, and (unless the rhymes be 
double) eight syllables {octo syllahce), — Butler's " Hu- 
dibras," Scott's poems, " The Giaour," and other poems 
of Lord Byron. 

3. Elegiac Octosyllahics, — Same as the last, except 
that the rhymes are regularly alternate, and the verses 
arranged in stanzas. 

And on her lover's arm she leant, 

And round her waist she felt it fold, . 
And far across the hills they went, 

In that new world which now is old : 
Across the hills and far away, 

Beyond their utmost purple rim, 
And deep into the dying day 

The happy princess followed him. — Tennyson. 



OCTOSYLLABICS, TRIPLETS, ETC. 227 

4. Octosyllabic Triplets. — Three rhymes in succes- 
sion. Generally arranged as stanzas. 

I blest them, and they wandered on ; 

I spoke, but answer came there none : 

The dull and bitter voice was gone. — Tennyson. 

5. Blank Verse, — Five measures, x a, without 
rhyme. " Paradise Lost," Young's " Night Thoughts," 
Cowper's " Task." 

6. Heroic Couplets. — Five measures, x a, with pairs 
of rhymes. Chaucer, Denham, Dryden, Waller, Pope, 
Goldsmith, Cowper, Byron, Moore, Shelley, &c. This 
is the common metre for narrative, didactic, and de- 
scriptive poetry. 

7. Heroic Triplets, — Five measures, x a. Three 
rhymes in succession. Arranged in stanzas. This me- 
tre is sometimes interposed among heroic couplets. 

8. Elegiacs. — Five measures, x a ; with regularly 
alternate rhymes, and arranged in stanzas. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea, 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. — Gray. 

9. Rhymes Royal. — Seven lines of heroics, with the 
last two rhymes in succession, and the first five recur- 
ring at intervals. 

This Troilus, in gift of curtesie, 
With hauk on hond, and with a huge rout 

Of knightes, rode, and did her company, 
Passing all through the valley far about ; 
And further would have ridden out of doubt. 

Full faine and woe was him to gone so sone ; 

But turn he must, and it was eke to doen. — Chaucer. 



228 PROSODY. 

This metre was common with the writers of the 
earher part of Queen Elizabeth's reign. It admits of 
varieties, according to the distribution of the first five 
rhymes. 

10. Ottava Rima. — A metre with an ItaHan name, 
and borrowed from Italy, where it is used generally for 
narrative poetry. The " Morgante Maggiore " of Pulci, 
the " Orlando Innamorato " of Bojardo, the " Orlando 
Furioso" of Ariosto, the '' Gierusalemme Liberata" of 
Tasso, are all written in this metre. Besides this, the 
two chief epics of Spain and Portugal respectively (the 
" Araucana " and the '' Lusiados " ) are thus composed. 
Hence it is a form of poetry which is Continental 
rather than English, and naturalized rather than indig- 
enous. The stanza consists of eight lines of heroics, 
the first six rhyming alternately, the last two in suc- 
cession. 

Arrived there, a prodigious noise he hears, 
Which suddenly along the forest spread ; 

Whereat from out his quiver he prepares 
An arrow for his bow, and lifts his head ; 

And, lo ! a monstrous herd of swine appears, 
And onward rushes with tempestuous tread, 

And to the fountain's brink precisely pours, 

So that the giant 's joined by all the boars. 

Morgante Maggiore (Lord Btrox's Translation). 

11. Terza Rima, — Like the last, borrowed both in 
name and nature from the Italian, and scarcely yet 
naturalized in England. 

The Spirit of the fervent days of old, 

When words were things that came to pass, and Thought 
Flashed o'er the future, bidding men behold 

Their children's children's doom already brought 



ALEXANDRINES, ETC. 229 

Forth from the abyss of Time which is to be, 

The Chaos of events where He half-\vrought 
Shapes that must undergo mortality : 

What the great seers of Israel wore within, 

That Spirit was on them and is on me ; 
And if, Cassandra-like, amidst the din 

Of conflicts, none will hear, or hearing heed 

This voice from out the Wilderness, the sin 
Be theirs, and my own feelings be my meed, 

The only guerdon I have ever known. 

12. Alexandrines. — Six measures, x a, generally 
(perhaps always) with rhyme. The name is said to be 
taken from the fact, that early romances upon the deeds 
of Alexander of Macedon, of great popularity, were 
written in this metre. One of the longest poems in the 
English language is in Alexandrines, namely, Dray- 
ton's " Poly-olbion," quoted in § 440. 6. 

13. Spenserian Stanza', — A stanza consisting of nine 
lines, the first eight heroics, the last an Alexandrine. 

It hiath been through all ages ever seen, 
That with the prize of arms and chivalrie 
The prize of beauty still hath joined been, 
And that for reason's special privitie ; 
For either doth on other much rely. 
For he meseems most fit the fair to serve 
That can her best defend from villanie ; 
And she most fit his service doth deserve 
That fairest is, and from her faith will never swerve. 

Spexser. 

" Childe Harold " and other celebrated poems are 
composed in the Spenserian stanza. 

14. Service Metre. — Couplets of seven measures, 
X a. This is the common metre of the Psalm versions. 
It is also called Common Measure, or Long Measure. 

15* 



230 PROSODY. 

(See § 440. 7.) In this metre there is always a pause 
after the fourth measure, and many grammarians con- 
sider that with that pause the line ends. According to 
this view, the service metre does not consist of two 
long lines with seven measures each ; but of four short 
ones, with four and three measures each alternately. 
The Psalm versions are printed so as to exhibit this 
pause or break. 

The Lord descended from above, | and bowed the heavens most 

high, 
And underneath his feet he cast | the darkness of the sky. 
On cherubs and on seraphim | full royally he rode, 
And on the wings of mighty winds | came flying all abroad. 

Sterxhold axd Hopkins. 

In this matter the following distinction is convenient. 
When the last syllable of the fourth measure (i. e. the 
eighth syllable in the line) in the one verse rhymes 
with the corresponding syllable in the other, the long 
verse should be looked upon as broken up into two 
short ones ; in other words, the couplets should be dealt 
with as a stanza. Where there is no rhyme except at 
the seventh measure, the verse should remain undi- 
vided. Thus, 

Turn, gentle hermit of the glen, | and guide thy lonely way 
To where yon taper cheers the vale | with hospitable ray — 

constitute a single couplet of two lines, the number of 
rhymes being two. But, 

Turn, gentle hermit of the dale 

And guide thy lonely way 
To where yon taper cheers the vale 

With hospitable ray. — Goldsmith. 



LICENSES. 231 

constitute a stanza of four lines, the number of rhymes 
being four. 

15. Ballad Stanza, — Service metre broken up in 
the way just indicated. Goldsmith's " Edwin and An- 
gelina," &c, 

16. Poulterer'' s Measure. — Alexandrines and service 
metre alternately. Found in the poetry of Henry the 
Eighth's time. 

No other amongst the numerous English metres have 
hitherto received names. 

§ 445. Licenses. — It rarely happens that, even in 
the most regular metres, the same measure is exclu- 
sively adhered to throughout. Instead of 

There comes the squall, more black than night, 
Before the Adrian gale, — 

the author writes, 

There comes the squall, blacker than night, 
Before the Adrian gale. — Macaulat. 

substituting a x fov x <2, and giving variety to his verse. 
Again, in the following line from Marlow, we find 
a X in the place of x a. 

Tyrants swim safest in a purple flood. 

By referring to some of the previous examples, the 
reader will find that in several quotations certain sylla- 
bles are inclosed in brackets [ ]. All these were su- 
pernumerary syllables, admitted by a certain allowable 
latitude, and constituting Metrical Licenses. Some- 
times the substitution of one measure for another is a 
matter of necessity ; sometimes it is done intentionally, 
for the sake of avoiding monotony. In this latter case 
it is an ornamental license. The numerous forms of 



232 PROSODY. 

metrical license are best learned by practice upon a 
variety of metres, the works of different authors. 

§ 446. Symmetrical Metres. — Allowing for the in- 
difference of the number of syllables in the last meas- 
ure, it is evident that, in all lines where the measures 
are dissyllabic, the syllables will be a multiple of the 
accents, i. e. they will be twice as numerous. Hence, 
with three accents there are six syllables, with four 
accents eight syllables, &c. 

Similarly, in all lines where the measures are trisyl- 
labic the syllables will also be multiples of the accents, 
i. e. they will be thrice as numerous. Hence, with 
three accents there will be nine syllables, with four ac- 
cents twelve syllables, and with seven accents twenty- 
one syllables. 

Lines of this sort may be called symmetrical. 

§ 447. Unsymmetrical Metre. — Lines where the syl- 
lables are not a multiple of the accents may be called 
Unsymmetrical. Occasional specimens of such lines 
occur (as may be seen from several of the examples 
already quoted) interspersed amongst others of sym- 
metrical character. Where this occurs, the general 
character of the versification may be considered as 
symmetrical also. 

The case, however, is different where the whole 
character of the versification is unsymmetrical, as it is 
in the greater part of Coleridge's " Christabell " and 
Byron's " Siege of Corinth." 

In the year since Jesus died for men, 
Eighteen hundred years and ten, 
We were a gallant company, 
Riding o'er land and sailing o'er sea. 
O', but we went merrily ! 



CONVERTIBLE METRES. 233 

We forded the river, and clcmb the high hill, 
Never our steeds for a day stood still. 
Whether we lay in the cdve or the shed, 
Our sleep fell soft on the hardest bed ; 
Whether we couched on our rough capote, 
Or the rougher plank of our gliding boat ; 
Or stretched on the beach, or our saddles spread 
As a pillow beneath the resting head, 
Fresh we woke upon the morrow. 
A'll our thoughts and words had scope. 
We had health and we had hope. 
Toil and travel, but no sorrow. 

These lines are naturally trisyllabic ; from any meas- 
ure of which one of the unaccented syllables may be 
ejected. Where they are symmetrical they are so by 
accident. A metrical fiction, that conveniently illus- 
trates their structure, is the doctrine that they are lines 
formed upon measure x a x^ for which either x x a or 
a X X may he substituted^ and from lohich either a x or 
X a may he formed hy ejection of either the first or last 
unaccented syllable, 

§ 448. Convertible Metres, — Such a line as 

Ere her faithless sons betrayed her 

may be read in two ways. We may either lay full 
stress upon the word ere, and read, 

E're her faithless sons betrayed her ; 

or we may lay little or no stress upon either ere or Aer, 
reserving the full accentuation for the syllable faith in 
faithless^ in which case the reading would be, 

Ere her faithless sons betrayed her. 

Lines of this sort may be called examples of converii- 



234 PROSODY. 

lie metres^ since by changing the accent a dissyllabic 
line may be converted into one partially trisyllabic, and 
vice versa. 

This property of convertibility is explained by the 
fact of accentuation being a relative quality. In the 
example before us ere is sufficiently strongly accented 
to stand in contrast to Aer, but it is not sufficiently 
strongly accented to stand upon a par with the faith in 
faithless^ if decidedly pronounced. 

The real character of convertible lines is determined 
from the character of the lines with which they are as- 
sociated. That the second mode of reading the line in 
question is the proper one, may be shown by reference 
to the stanza wherein it occurs : — 

Let E'rin remember her days of old, 
Ere her faithless sons betrayed her, 

When Malachi wore the collar of gold, 
Which he won from the proud invader. 

Again, such a line as 

For the glory I have lost, 
although it may be read. 

For the glory I' have lost, 

would be read improperly. The stanza wherein it oc- 
curs is essentially dissyllabic {ax) 

Heed, O, heed my fatal story ! 

I' am Hosier's injured ghost. 
Come to seek for fame and glory, — 

For the glory I ' have lost. 

§ 449. Metrical and Grammatical Combinations, — 
Words, or parts of words, that are combined as meas- 



METRICAL COMBINATIONS, ETC. 235 

ures, are words, or parts of words, combined metri- 
cally^ or in metrical comhination. 

Syllables combined as words, or words combined as 
portions of a sentence, are syllables and words gram- 
matically comhined^ or in grammatical comhination. 

The syllables ere her faith- form a metrical combi- 
nation. 

The words her faithless sons form a grammatical 
combination. 

When the syllables contained in the same measure 
(or connected metrically) are also contained in the 
same construction (or connected grammatically), the 
metrical and the grammatical combinations coincide. 
Such is the case with the line 

Remember | the glories | of Brian | the Brave ; 

where the same division separates both the measure 
and the subdivisions of the sense, inasmuch as the 
word the is connected with the word glories equally in 
grammar and in metre, in syntax and in prosody. So 
is of with Brian ^ and the with Brave, 
Contrast with this such a line as 

A chieftain to the Highlands bound. 

Here the metrical division is one thing, the grammati- 
cal division another, and there is no coincidence. 
Metrical^ 

A chief I tain to | the High | lands bound. 
Grammatical^ 

A chieftain | to the Highlands | bound. 

In the following stanza the coincidence of the metri- 
cal and grammatical combination is nearly complete : — 



236 PROSODY. 

To arms ! to arms ! The serfs, they roam 

O'er hill, and dale, and glen : 
The king is dead, and time is come 

To choose a chief again. 

In 

WaiTiors or chiefs, should the shaft or the sword 
Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord, 
Heed not the corpse, though a king's, in your pAth, 
Buiy your steel in the bosoms of Gath. — Byrox. 

there is a non-coincidence equally complete. 

§ 450. Rhythm. — The character of a metre is 
marked and prominent in proportion as the metrical 
and the grammatical combinations coincide. The ex- 
tent to which the measure a x x is the basis of the 
stanza last quoted is concealed by the antagonism of 
the metre and the construction. If it were not for the 
axiom, that every metre is to he considered uniform un- 
til there is proof to the contrary .^ the lines might be 
divided thus : — 

a x^ X a^ X X a, X X a^ 

a x^ X a x^ X a x^ X a^ 

a x^ X a^ X X a^ X X a^ 

a x^ X a x^ X a x^ X a. 
The variety which arises in versification from the 
different degrees of the coincidence and non-coinci- 
dence between the metrical and grammatical combi- 
nations may be called Rhythm. 



THE END. 






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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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